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Yet this time-honored practice is disappearing in the wake of metal flake, sport boats of the pleasure seeker as well as the engine powered, folk-derived craft of the contemporary subsistence and commercial fishermen. Although north Louisiana is not known as an area for boat making, Anglo-American up-river ancestors often floated their way down stream on rafts and barges that provide sources for the flatboat.

Perhaps the most recent cultural connection in boat form and function is the apparent linkage of the oyster lugger of south Louisiana to the Dalmatian coast of Yugoslavia from which have come Slavonian immigrants over the last century.

If a diversity of cultures has contributed to Louisiana's boat types, the diversity of ecological niches in which they must function has also given impetus to modification of style and use over time from the pirogue that can "float on a dew" in shallow swamps and marshes to the steady barge that can support a house.

However, Louisiana's boat types and the strength of this on-going tradition of building and use are barely recognized or documented in the state. Louisiana, along with other coastal states like Maine, Maryland, and Oregon, has a vibrant set of boat traditions that we take for granted while marine architects from afar are amazed at the economy and beauty of a Lafitte skiff made entirely from unwritten plans.

New folk houses are rarely constructed today, but they are still lived in and thus provide a visible connection to the heritage of the past. Folk boats are constantly refurbished, made anew and modified as to material. As such they are cultural vessels that join the regional heritage of the past to the future pursuit of food and other water-related resources. In the article that follows, Malcolm Comeaux updates the landmark work of William Knipmeyer which was reprinted in as "Folk Boats of Eastern French Louisiana.

Comeaux is a native of Lafayette and has also written about Acadian accordions and the Spanish Moss industry. Folk boats of Louisiana are an excellent vehicle for the study and understanding of material culture. There are several basic styles of folk boats, and each has changed and evolved through time and space. These changes have come about as a result of the varieties of environments exploited, new technology that is introduced or locally developed, and changes in the world at large, as for example the development of roads, or the desire for new water-related sources as shrimp, crawfish, or oil.

Most Louisiana fishermen are conservative, and do not want to change, but as fishermen everywhere in the United States, they are tied to the national economy, for they must sell their products and buy goods from the surrounding society. Changes in boat technology are inevitably forced on fishermen, but these changes are molded by people to fit their ideals, needs, and knowledge, and in these changes there is continuity, as the new ways are superimposed on the old.

In this manner some boat types are abandoned, while others evolve and change. Boat types used today are the result of the interplay of culture, environment, and technology. A person reared in a particular culture will have preconceived ideas of how to build and use boats, and this background will help determine what boats are used, and what changes are made in any boat style. Environments will also help determine boats and their use, as Louisiana watercraft are used in deep oceans and shallow coastal lakes, in large powerful rivers and in shallow, quiet bayous, and in marshes and swamps.

There are boat types particularly suited to each of these environments. The last factor influencing boat styles is technology, and it offers the greatest opportunities for rapid change. As new technology is introduced, watercraft are changed to fit the new technology, and where the two can successfully blend, a new boat type quickly develops. Boats that cannot successfully use the new technology are often abandoned, except where particularly adapted to a task or environment.

A study of small working boats is difficult for two reasons. One is because boats have been ignored by scholars. A great amount has been written on steamboats and sailboats because of the romanticism associated with them Glassie , but the small, sometimes dirty, working boats are considered prosaic, and so have been ignored. A second reason for the difficulty is the lack of standard terminology to describe boat types. Any small change in a boat design will cause a new name to be used to describe it, and, of course, names to describe the variation will vary from one region to the next, with confusion the result.

Only a small percentage of the people in Louisiana are today dependent on boats for work or transportation. Most Louisianians are urban dwellers and have little need for boats, except for recreational purposes. The same can be said for farmers and those persons living in small towns away from streams or the coast.

Where boats are important, however, they are of critical significance, and in these areas a great amount of boat tradition is found.

There are two broad traditions concerning boats extant in Louisiana: that found in northern, or Anglo Louisiana, and that found in southern, or French Louisiana for a study of the north-south boundary line, see Newton One other fact about boats and people should be mentioned; black people of Louisiana do not have a boat tradition.

Blacks have traditionally been associated with agriculture and cities, and they have never been associated with commercial fishing in inland waters. Boat building and use traditions have never been as diversified or strong in Anglo Louisiana as opposed to French Louisiana. North Louisiana was settled by Southerners moving westward, and boat building and fish consumption was never important in this culture Comeaux 91 and Padgett Fishing, meanwhile, was very important along the Upper Mississippi and Illinois River systems, and fishermen from these areas drifted into north Louisiana.

Boat traditions, however, were important only to the "river rats" and fishermen along rivers, and this way of life has largely ended, along with many of the boat traditions Gregory Boat traditions in south Louisiana, the area of French influence, have always been strong and varied. Almost all early French settlements, except for those on the prairies of southwest Louisiana p. One early French writer, in describing the significance of boats to local inhabitants, said Robin :. People in this country are so accustomed to travel by water that the generic term ' voiture ' standard French for "carriage" is always applied to a boat.

If a Louisianan says to you 'I brought my voiture '; 'Can I give you a lift in my voiture ; he is referring to his pirogue or skiff as a Parisian using the same word would mean his coach. Many boat types were used in this early era. Boats quickly evolved to fit ecological niches and particular chores.

An observant writer Robin , who lived in Louisiana from to , explained the many varieties this way:. This diversity of shape of these boats comes from the diversity in their usage and in the places where they must go. Those that come from the far-off rivers that are wide and shallow are wide and flat in order to draw little water, while those that navigate the surface of the deep rivers must overcome the swift current, are more elongate and draw more water and are heavier.

Their thick, rounded bottoms glide over the snags and logs which are found in all parts of the river bed. The narrow bayous where the water sometimes rushes in torrents boats that are shorter and lighter, whereas others still require very light skiffs in order to shoot the rapids or to be dragged over the river bed in low water. He further stated Robin that there were even luxury craft requiring l5 to 20 slaves to row them, and that they were owned by wealthy plantation owners who wanted to flaunt their wealth.

Boats remained important in the lives of many French-speakers until about the s, when an expanding efficient highway system made travel by boats along bayous inefficient. Since that time, the use of folk boats has declined. Many south Louisianians, however, remain employed in the exploitation of water-related resources, so boats continue to be significant, and boat traditions persist. Although boat traditions are stronger in south Louisiana, there are relatively few differences between the boat types used in inland waters in the two areas.

There are just so many ways to build a small craft, and in inland waters these techniques are widely known, from the Gulf Coast to Minnesota. South Louisiana boats differ from those in north Louisiana in the accouterments, the way the boats are used, their far greater numbers, the keeping of relict craft, their diversity of type and their better maintenance such as frequent paintings, 1 and the use of small sheds to protect boats from inclement weather.

There is a considerable amount of overlap between boats used in inland waters and those used in shallow bays and inlets along the coast, but there is a vast amount of difference when comparing boats used in inland waters, and those offshore. The term pirogue 2 pronounced many ways, but usually "pero," or "perog" is used throughout Louisiana to refer to a small one- or two-man craft that is flat-bottomed, narrow, and pointed on the ends. To most Americans this craft would be classified as a "canoe," but that term is never used in Louisiana to identify a pirogue.

The modern pirogue traces its roots back to Indian dugout pirogues, and it has gone through a long evolutionary process before developing into its present form. The dugout was the only true boat used by Indians in Louisiana prior to the arrival of Europeans. A few birch bark canoes entered the state with French Canadian explorers, but such craft were not built by Louisiana Indians, most probably because no locally suitable bark was available to build this type canoe.

The Indians had to use fire to both fell the tree and hollow the log Fig. Having only fire as a tool, Indian pirogues were crudely made, disproportional, and very thick-hulled Le Page du Pratz [, Vol. The result was a bulky craft that often weighed several thousand pounds. The Indians of Louisiana built their dugouts of cypress, 5 and cypress remained the main building material for dugouts as long as they were built.

Early French explorers and settlers quickly recognized the pirogue as an excellent craft for use on inland waters, began acquiring them from Indians and soon were building their own improved models.

The French had steel tools, particularly the ax, adz and auger or gimlet , and with these tools a pirogue could be quickly and carefully constructed, and made quite light.

The ax was used to fell the tree and roughly shape the craft, while the adz was used to hollow out the log. The auger was used to drill holes through the bottom of the craft so the craftsman could check the thinness of the hull Knipmeyer Other tools to help simplify the task were used when available, such as a saw, knife, hatchet, plane, drawknife, templates, as well as both the foot and hand adz.

With their tools and their superior knowledge of watercraft, the French built vastly improved versions of the Indian pirogue. In particular, the French changed the shape of the pirogue. Le Page du Pratz Vol. The French made their pirogues pointed on the ends, and this made them easier to propel and more seaworthy. The French also changed the method of building pirogues; as opposed to Indians, they first formed the outside of the log, and then hollowed out the middle.

The outer side was very carefully shaped, and French pirogues had equal dimensions and curves on either side of the centerline; this gave them excellent balance.

After the outer hull was shaped, and much of the hollowing completed, auger holes were placed along the curvature where the bottom of the craft meets the sides, and also in the very center of the bottom. The craftsman then finished hollowing out the log, using the holes to check the thinness of the hull the holes were later plugged with pegs when the craft was nearing completion.

With these techniques the hull was made of uniform thickness, and without weak spots as might be found in Indian pirogues where, during the burning, the hull may have become too thin. Being thin-hulled, it was much lighter than Indian dugouts, and this made it easier both to portage and to paddle against a current.

As long as dugouts were built, these basic techniques and tools did not change, nor were they improved upon. Size and use of the dugout changed with time. Many of the earliest ones were very large, up to 50 feet with a beam to match Surrey l 57 and were used to haul cargo and passengers long distances. Use of these large pirogues ended in the late eighteenth century, though a few remained along the Mississippi well into the steamboat era.

Small dugouts about 12 to 14 feet long continued to be built and remained popular along the smaller streams of the state until about Knipmeyer , where they were used for fishing, trapping, hunting, and ferrying. Decline of dugout pirogues was swift.

After they were only built in any numbers in south central Louisiana, and very few have been built since By they were found only in south central Louisiana, and by there was only one dugout in use in the Atchafalaya Basin Comeaux 38, Quite a few remain, however, in the coastal marsh.

Few logs exist from which more pirogues could be built, and this was a major reason relatively few were made after Another major reason, however, was the fact that large scale mechanized lumbering of cypress trees from swamps was reaching its peak at this time, and cypress lumber was cheap.

With the growing scarcity of cypress trees, and the availability of good quality cypress lumber, plank pirogues were born. Swamp and marsh dwellers recognize the virtues of dugout pirogues, such as their durability, and their aid in hunting as they make little noise when bumping into trees and stumps , as well as their major drawback, their weight.

Some undoubtedly would continue to build and use dugouts if they could get suitable logs. The only dugouts built in any numbers since the late s are racing pirogues used south of New Orleans along Bayou Barataria in an annual "Pirogue Derby. Once logs became scarce, pirogues were built of cypress planks, and since cypress planks have become scarce, they have been built of marine plywood. These new boats evolved from dugouts, greatly resemble them, and are used for the same purposes as dugout pirogues.

It is not surprising, therefore, that they are almost universally called "pirogues," even in north Louisiana, though sometimes they are called "plank pirogues" to differentiate them from dugout pirogues. These modern pirogues still resemble dugouts in use today in the following ways they are relatively short, averaging 12 to 14 feet; they are slightly wider near the bow, as the run to the stern is longer; the bottom is flat and ends at a ridge at the bow and stern; the gunwales are slightly flared, and curve slightly toward front and rear; small fillets reinforce the bow and stern; two thwarts are in the craft, the one to the rear being the seat; and a strip of molding is placed on the outside top edge of the gunwales.

Pirogues are used almost exclusively in swamps or marshes. Narrow pirogues are used for hunting and fishing in swamps, as they are an ideal craft for traversing a wooded area, and in swamps they are always paddled. In the marsh pirogues are used in narrow man-made canals, called trainasses Davis l; and Kammer , and are portaged between lakes where canals do not exist. These small light craft are never used in a large river, because of the danger of swamping.

The highest concentration of pirogues is in southern Louisiana, but they can be found throughout the state. The pirogue does not lend itself to mechanization.

On a few the rear end is cut off and a transom added to support a small outboard motor, or an inboard engine is used, but neither approach is truly successful. As a result, today's pirogue, never used for long distance travel, but rather only for a few specialized purposes, is declining in significance.

The skiff esquiff is of an ancient design, and examples of this boat type are found in many parts of the world. The term skiff refers to any small flat-bottomed craft with a sharp bow and square stern, but throughout the Mississippi River system it is recognized as a particular boat type. The distinguishing features are intangible, but it is a boat type recognized by all who make their living on the water. The problem is one of terminology.

Almost any boat with a pointed bow could be called a skiff, and boats resembling skiffs had very specific names, such as peniche, chaloupe , 8 and galere Knipmeyer One early writer, however, saw "real skiffs made of planks of varying timbers in the European manner" that were made in Louisiana before Robin , so skiffs, or variations of modern skiffs, were undoubtedly in Louisiana very early. Three varieties of skiffs soon evolved. The major difference between the types was in the shape of the stern.

Names to identify the skiff sub-types varied from one region to the next, but in Louisiana they have been termed the "Creole skiff," the "Mississippi skiff," and the "lake skiff. It has the narrowest beam, the greatest amount of sheer and rake out of the water at the stern, and the transom is V-shaped, often times as narrow as two inches at the bottom.

The lake skiff is the largest and widest, and has a stern that is wide and almost rectangular. The Mississippi skiff is intermediate between the two. Each of these skiff types has attributes that largely determine use and distribution. The lake skiff is the most stable, seaworthy, and capable of carrying the heaviest load, so it is usually found along the large coastal lakes and bays or in the Mississippi River.

The Creole skiff is least stable but is easiest to row, and it is usually found in inland waters, particularly in the Atchafalaya Basin. The Mississippi skiff has some of the virtues of each. Fishermen have always recognized merits of the various types, and try to get a craft that fits a need. Skiffs have delicate lines, and true skiffs could never be built by inexperienced fishermen, so they have always been built in small boatyards scattered along the Mississippi River.

One unique feature of some skiffs in south Louisiana is the method used in rowing them. A device known as a joug elevates and extends the tholepins and straps beyond the side of the craft Knipmeyer This allows for easy rowing while standing and facing forward Fig.

It is used especially on the Creole skiff, but can be occasionally found on other craft. It is a technique that was introduced from southern Europe, where such a method of rowing boats is common. Traditional skiffs are now very rarely seen in north Louisiana, and only a few survive in south central Louisiana.

The skiff is a boat designed to be rowed, and when internal combustion engines were introduced, the skiff began a slow decline in popularity, as it is not really ideally suited to carry either an outboard motor or an inboard engine. Inboard engines were put in skiffs, and a large skiff with such an engine is called a canotte Knipmeyer , but few if any exist today. Bernard Parish. Lafitte skiffs are indeed skiffs in the general form of the boat, though much larger than other skiff varieties.

They are designed to work in shallow waters behind and along the coast. Lafitte skiffs are now found widely used along the Louisiana Gulf Coast, especially in the inland shrimp industry. These are sleek craft with powerful inboard engines, which today are usually Chevrolet or Oldsmobile engines converted to marine use. Constructing a Lafitte skiff is difficult, so they are usually built in small "shipyards" by specialists, but they are also sometimes built by individual fishermen.

The other skiff type to evolve for use with an engine uses an outboard motor. It is called by no special name by its users, and only referred to as a "skiff," but it is quite different from traditional skiffs. This boat evolved in the Atchafalaya Basin, and is very popular there, so should be termed the "Atchafalaya skiff.

The gunwales do not rake up at the stern, but rather the bottom extends straight back from the center, and the rear bottom is very broad. Since there is little sheer to the gunwales, it is an easy boat to build, and if of wood, it is usually built by the owner. With the pointed bow, which usually has little rake, the Atchafalaya skiff can be driven through the water hyacinth which now chokes many of the streams and swamps, and it can push aside small trees in a swamp, so it is widely used in overflowed lands, especially by crawfishermen Comeaux The flatboat is today the major boat used by folk fishermen in inland waters in Louisiana, and this boat type is found along all river courses.

Although there are many flat-bottomed boats, to river people there is only one "flatboat. These characteristics will, in general, identify all craft belonging to the flatboat group. This flatboat family has gone through a long evolution, as they have been easily adapted to new technology, and there are many varieties of flatboats.

Flatboats evolved from the large barges moving goods downstream to New Orleans. These barges developed in Europe, were used along the United States eastern seaboard, and at some unknown but early date were introduced into the Mississippi River system Johnson , Evidence that early flatboats evolved from barges is circumstantial but strong: a barge was commonly called a "flatboat," and a primitive flatboat in French Louisiana is called a chaland , 12 meaning "barge" in standard French; flatboats, though smaller, resemble barges in form; construction of early flatboats and barges was similar built upside down with bottom boards running athwart rather than lengthwise ; and small barges resembling early flatboats are still built by fishermen.

The first flatboats were developed by fishermen. If a fisherman could not afford to buy a skiff but needed a boat larger and more stable than a pirogue, he would build a flatboat. Flatboats were easy to build, as they were oblong, with little or no sheer to the sides, and the bottom boards were nailed athwart. The ends were raked slightly upwards, with the bow narrower than the stern. This construction made them easy to paddle or row, highly maneuverable, and quite stable Comeaux This early flatboat was never as good as a skiff, but it would suffice.

A few of these early flatboats are still being built, but they are not very common. In the French area they are called chaland , and in north Louisiana "paddle boat," though local names to identify this craft abound Knipmeyer They are today usually built of marine plywood, which greatly simplifies construction and gives them greater strength. Today the chaland and the paddle boat are used only for short trips. In the French area it is common to stand while paddling a chaland across a stream.

Changes in the design of the flatboat began when small internal combustion engines became available soon after 13 Comeaux 42 , for the flatboat, when modified, was ideally suited for use with inboard engines. The major changes in the flatboat were to double the length, so that the average was well over 20 feet but it was not greatly widened ; the run forward was made much greater than the run aft; a rudder was used; and the bow rose high out of the water because of a large amount of forward sheer.

There are many names for this type boat, such as joe boat, john boat, gas boat, launch, and putt-putt, but in French Louisiana the term " bateau " is most widely used. Whereas the French word bateau means the same as "boat" in English, in south-central Louisiana it always refers to this type of craft. The engine used in the bateau was a small two-cycle engine, still affectionately called a "putt-putt" by older river people; there was even a company in Plaquemine that manufactured putt-putt engines.

The bateau was once widely used, but its popularity declined rapidly. In , up to 60 percent of all boats in the Atchafalaya Basin were bateaus Knipmeyer , but now there are only 4 or 5 left, and these are kept for nostalgic reasons. The reason for the decline of the bateau was again developing technology.

Outboard motors were first developed soon after Casson , but by the s they had been perfected and had gained acceptance. The long, heavy, and slender bateau could not be made to plane, so could not be efficiently used with an outboard motor, and it was quickly discarded.

Many boats of the bateau type survive in the upper Mississippi River system, where they are usually called "launches. With such an engine they are very powerful and can be used for special chores, such as in seining or as small tug boats.

This type craft is sometimes seen in Louisiana pushing the houseboats of drifters. Since it was unusual to put such large engines in bateaus in Louisiana, powerful outboard motors could do much more work than a putt-putt, and there was thus another reason for abandoning the bateau. In the future, however, should a need arise among folk fishermen in Louisiana inland waters for a powerful boat that need not plane, a bateau with a powerful engine will probably quickly develop.

The boat that developed to complement the outboard motor evolved from the flatboat family, and it is now the only craft commonly referred to today as a "flatboat. Though shorter, the rear hung engine of a flatboat allows work space equal to a bateau. The flatboat's major advantage when equipped with motor is speed; the all-day trip of a bateau can be accomplished very quickly. The flatboat also uses less gas as it planes on top of the water, rather than plowing through it.

The flatboat is now far and away the most common boat on Louisiana inland waters, and this fact is true throughout the entire Mississippi River system Comeaux The only difference between flatboats used in the French and Anglo areas is that flatboats made in south Louisiana are usually of much better quality, sturdier, and better maintained.

Locally made, very heavy gauge aluminum flatboats are now gaining acceptance by commercial fishermen. Small factory-made aluminum flatboats, too light and unstable for use by commercial fishermen, are now widely sold for use by sportsmen; no greater compliment can be paid to the often maligned folk-oriented flatboat.

Barges, from which flatboats evolved, still survive in Louisiana and are still built by folk fishermen. Except for their smaller size, 15 they resemble the early barges once used in hauling goods from the Ohio River to New Orleans.

The main use of barges today is for handling large, heavy, and awkward loads, such as for seining, ferrying or as a base for a houseboat.

Houseboats also called campboats are built on bargesand so should be considered a part of the flatboat family. The origin and evolution of houseboats is unclear. They probably evolved from "Orleans" or "New Orleans" boats that carried goods between the upper Ohio and New Orleans, and they were often used as floating stores. These Orleans boats were relatively small and narrow and had an arched roof extending bow to stern Johnson A view of Orleans boats that greatly resembled modern houseboats was sketched as early as the year Samuel et al.

After this date, it is not unusual to see sketches and photographs of similar craft on the Mississippi. It is unknown when fishermen, drifters, wood cutters, and other river people began living in them as permanent homes, but it was apparently not very early, as it was not mentioned by early writers.

A visitor to the Atchafalaya Basin in , for example, did not mention houseboats, but on several occasions he mentioned the "huts" of fishermen Coulon , huts that were undoubtedly under water for part of the year, for houses in swampy areas near rivers and streams in the Mississippi River system were never built on stilts to avoid the annual spring flood.

It must have been soon after S that houseboats were adopted, for six years later there were houseboats in the Atchafalaya Swamp Smith , and by that figure had grown to Sette Houseboats were very popular in the early part of the twentieth century, and they could be seen along all major streams, not only in Louisiana, but in the entire Mississippi River system.

Most were occupied by fishermen, and almost all towns along major streams had one used as a fish market. The typical houseboat is as wide as the hull supporting it, about 10 feet, and only rarely is there a catwalk extending beyond the hull along the side. They are about 35 feet long, one room wide, and three feet deep, with the front room a living room, the second a bedroom, and the rear room a kitchen.

There is a small porch on the bow, and the roof is low and arched some today have a low gable. Most houseboats in Louisiana today are abandoned or are pulled onto shore and occupied there. Boats used in coastal and offshore situations are different from boats used in inland waters. In this environment, stability is of critical importance, and boats here are much more seaworthy than those found on inland waters.

Many are flat-bottomed and designed for use near-shore and in the large bays and lakes behind the coast, while others have deep V-shaped hulls for use offshore. The flat-bottomed boats commonly used along the coast are numerous, but the craft can be grouped into several categories. One of these is the Lafitte skiff. This skiff evolved from large Mississippi skiffs that were rowed in coastal waters in the early days of the shrimp industry, when seines were hauled by hand these were known as "haul seines".

The traditional inland and near-shore craft is the lugger. This craft evolved from sailing boats native to the Mediterranean that were introduced and used along the Louisiana coast, and they got their name "lugger" from their Mediterranean rig Padgett When gas engines were introduced, the sailing luggers declined rapidly, as the motorized luggers evolved.

The new luggers resembled sailing luggers except that the centerboard casing was omitted, and a cabin to house the engine and operating controls was placed at the rear Becnel They were small flat-bottomed craft, 20 to 30 feet long. Later more seaworthy luggers were introduced, and they are called "Biloxi oyster luggers," as they originated in Biloxi, Mississippi Padgett The Biloxi oyster luggers are from 40 to 50 feet long, had more of a V-bottom, and had greater freeboard.

They were thus more seaworthy than the local luggers, and they became quite popular for close offshore work Becnel New York. North Carolina. North Dakota. Rhode Island. South Carolina. South Dakota. West Virginia. Cities in Louisiana. Lake Charles. New Orleans. Baton Rouge. Price Drop info. Power-all-power All Power. Aft Cabin. Aluminum Fishing. Antique and Classic. Center Console. Cruise Ships. Cuddy Cabin. Dual Console. Express Cruiser. Freshwater Fishing. High Performance. Motor Yachts. Power Catamarans.

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