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You can use this option as many times as you see fit. This is free because we want you to be completely satisfied with the service offered. We have writers with varied training and work experience. The word algorithm algorizm is named after him. Around that year, a book attributed to Chinese alchemist Cheng Yin warns of the dangerous incendiary nature of mixtures containing saltpetre potassium nitrate , and sulphur, both essential components of gunpowder.

Such chemicals mixed with various other substances including carbonaceous materials and arsenic had been used in various concentrations by alchemists since around A. After Cheng Yin's warning, similar mixtures were soon developed to produce flares and fireworks as well as military ordnance including burning bombs and fuses to ignite flame throwers burning petrol gasoline. The first example of a primitive gun called a "fire arrow" appeared in , and in , arrows tipped with burning "fire chemicals" were used to besiege the city of Tzu-t'ung.

It was not until that the full power of the saltpetre rich mixture was discovered and the first true formula for gunpowder was published by Tseng Kung-Liang.

After that, true explosive devices were developed including cannon and hand grenades and land mines. Around it was realised that an arrow could be made to fly without the need for a bow by attaching to the shaft, a bamboo tube packed with a burning gunpowder mix. This led to the development of the rocket which was born when larger projectiles were constructed from the bamboo sticks alone without the arrows. A text from around that time describes how the combustion efficiency and hence the rocket thrust could be improved by creating a cavity in the propellant along the centre line of the rocket tube to maximise the burning surface - a technique still used in solid fuelled rockets today.

In Chinese chronicler Chao Yu-Jung recorded the first use of bombs which we would recognise today, with cast iron casings packed with explosives, which created deadly flying shrapnel when they exploded. They were used to great effect by a special catapult unit in Genghis Khan 's Mongol army and by the Chinese Jin forces to defeat their Song enemies in the siege of Kaifeng.

He also prepared ethanol, which was used for medicinal applications, and described how to prepare alkali Al-Qali, the salt work ashes, potash from oak ashes. Al-Razi published his work on alchemy in his " Book of Secrets ". The precise amounts of the substances he specified in his recipes demonstrates an understanding of what we would now call stoichiometry. Several more words for chemicals are derived from their Arabic roots including alcohol Al Kuhl" "essence", usually referring to ethanol as well as arsenic and borax.

Compass needles were made by heating a thin piece of iron, often in the shape of a fish, to a temperature above the Curie Point then cooling it in line with the Earth's magnetic field.

Although his designs achieved widespread use in China, it was another four hundred years before the printing press was "invented" by Johann Gutenberg in Europe. Challenging Aristotle now became a challenge to the Church.

He discovered that a magnet had two magnetic poles , North and South and was the first to describe the phenomena of attraction and repulsion. He also speculated that these forces could be harnessed in a machine.

Paul's in London. The invention of the verge and foliot escapement was an important breakthrough in measuring the passage of time allowing the development of mechanical timepieces. The name verge comes from the Latin virga , meaning stick or rod. See picture and explanation of the Verge Escapement. The inventor of the verge escapement is not known but we know that it dates from 13th century Europe, where it was first used in large tower clocks which were built in town squares and cathedrals.

The earliest recorded description of an escapement is in Richard of Wallingford 's manuscript Tractatus Horologii Astronomici on the clock he built at the Abbey of St. It was not a verge, but a more complex variation. For over years the verge was the only escapement used in mechanical clocks until alternative escapements started to appear in the 16th century and it was years before the more accurate pendulum clock was invented by Huygens.

When the Ming dynasty came into power, China was the most advanced nation on Earth. During the Dark Ages in Europe, China had already developed cast iron , the compass , gunpowder , rockets , paper , paper money, canals and locks, block printing and moveable type , porcelain, pasta and many other inventions centuries before they were "invented" by the Europeans. From the first century B.

They were so far ahead of Europe that when Marco Polo described these wondrous inventions in on his return to Venice from China he was branded a liar. China's innovation was based on practical inventions founded on empirical studies, but their inventiveness seems to have deserted them during the Ming dynasty and subsequently during the Qing Ching dynasty - China never developed a theoretical science base and both the Western scientific and industrial revolutions passed China by.

Why should this be? It is said that the answer lies in Chinese culture, to some extent Confucianism but particularly Daoism Taoism whose teachings promoted harmony with nature whereas Western aspirations were the control of nature.

However these conditions existed before the Ming when China's innovation led the world. A more likely explanation can be found in China's imperial political system in which a massive society was rigidly controlled by all-powerful emperors through a relatively small cadre of professional administrators Mandarins whose qualifications were narrowly based on their knowledge of Confucian ideals. If the emperor was interested in something, it happened, if he wasn't, it didn't happen.

The turning point in China's technological dominance came when the Ming emperor Xuande came to power in Admiral Zheng He , a muslim eunuch, castrated as a boy when the Chinese conquered his tribe, had recently completed an audacious voyage of exploration on behalf of a previous Ming emperor Yongle to assert China's control of all of the known world and to extract tributary from its intended subjects. But his new master considered the benefits did not justify the huge expense of Zheng's fleet of 62 enormous nine masted junks and smaller supply ships with their 27, crew.

The emperor mothballed the fleet and henceforth forbade the construction of any ships with more than two masts, curbing China's aspirations as a maritime power and putting an end to its expansionist goals, a xenophobic policy which has lasted until modern times. The result was that during both the Ming and the Qing dynasties a succession of complacent, conservative emperors cocooned in prodigious, obscene wealth, remote even from their own subjects, lived in complete isolation and ignorance of the rest of the world.

Foreign influences, new ideas, and an independent merchant class who sponsored them, threatened their power and were consequently suppressed. By contrast the West was populated by smaller, diverse and independent nations competing with each other.

Merchant classes were encouraged and innovation flourished as each struggled to Aluminum Boats Enclosed Cabin Kit gain competitive or military advantage. Times have changed. Currently China is producing two million graduates per year, sixty percent of which are in science and technology subjects, three times as many as in the USA. For the first time knowledge and ideas could be recorded and disseminated to a much wider public than had previously been possible using hand written texts and its use spread rapidly throughout Europe.

Intellectual life was no longer the exclusive domain of the church and the court and an era of enlightenment was ushered in with science, literature, religious and political texts becoming available to the masses who in turn had the facility to publish their own views challenging the status quo. It was the ability to publish and spread one's ideas that enabled the Scientific Revolution to happen.

Nowadays the Internet is bringing about a similar revolution. Although it was new to Europe, the Chinese had already invented printing with moveable type four hundred years earlier but, because of China's isolation, these developments never reached Europe.

Gutenberg printed Bibles and supported himself by printing indulgences, slips of paper sold by the Catholic Church to secure remission of the temporal punishments in Purgatory for sins committed in this life. He was a poor businessman and made little money from his printing system and depended on subsidies from the Archbishop of Mainz. Because he spent what little money he had on alcohol, the Archbishop arranged for him to be paid in food and lodging, instead of cash.

Gutenberg died penniless in It was a law designed more to protect the economy of the state than the rights of the inventor since, as the result of its declining naval power, Venice was changing its focus from trading to manufacturing. The Republic required to be informed of all new and inventive devices, once they had been put into practice, so that they could take action against potential infringers. One of the most brilliant minds of the Italian Renaissance, Leonardo was hugely talented as an artist and sculptor but also immensely creative as an engineer, scientist and inventor.

The fame of his surviving paintings has meant that he has been regarded primarily as an artist, but his scientific insights were far ahead of their time. He investigated anatomy, geology, botany, hydraulics, acoustics, optics, mathematics, meteorology, and mechanics and his inventions included military machines, flying machines, and numerous hydraulic and mechanical devices.

He lived in an age of political in-fighting and intrigue between the independent Italian states of Rome, Milan, Florence, Venice and Naples as well as lesser players Genoa, Siena, and Mantua ever threatening to degenerate into all out war, in addition to threats of invasion from France.

In those turbulent times da Vinci produced a series of drawings depicting possible weapons of war during his first two years as an independent. Thus began a lifelong fascination with military machines and mechanical devices which became an important part of his expanding portfolio and the basis for many of his offers to potential patrons, the heads of these belligerent, or fearful, independent states.

Despite his continuing interest in war machines, he claimed he was not a war monger and he recorded several times in his notebooks his discomfort with designing killing machines. Nevertheless, he actively solicited such commissions because by then he had his own pupils and needed the money to pay them. Most of Leonardo's designs were not constructed in his lifetime and we only know about them through the many models he made but mostly from the 13, pages of notes and diagrams he made in which he recorded his scientific observations and sketched ideas for future paintings, architecture, and inventions.

Unlike academics today who rush into publication, he never published any of his scientific works, fearing that others would steal his ideas. Patent law was still in its infancy and difficult, if not impossible, to enforce.

Such was his paranoia about plagiarism that he even wrote all of his notes, back to front, in mirror writing, sometimes also in code, so he could keep his ideas private. He was not however concerned about keeping the notes secret after his death and in his will he left all his manuscripts, drawings, instruments and tools to his loyal pupil, Francesco Melzi with no objection to their publication.

Melzi expected to catalogue and publish all of Leonardo's works but he was overwhelmed by the task, even with the help of two full-time scribes, and left only one incomplete volume, "Trattato della Pintura" or "Treatise on Painting", about Leonardo's paintings before he himself died in On his death the notes were inherited by his son Orazio who had no particular interest in the works and eventually sections of the notes were sold off piecemeal to treasure seekers and private collectors who were interested more in Leonardo's art rather than his science.

Because of his secrecy, his contemporaries knew nothing of his scientific works which consequently had no influence on the scientific revolution which was just beginning to stir. It was about two centuries before the public and the scientific community began gradually to get access to Leonardo's scientific notes when some collectors belatedly allowed them to be published or when they ended up on public display in museums where they became the inspiration for generations of inventors.

Unfortunately, only pages are known to survive and over pages of these priceless notebooks have been lost forever. Who knows what wisdom they may have contained? Leonardo da Vinci is now remembered as both "Leonardo the Artist" and "Leonardo the Scientist" but perhaps "Leonardo the Inventor" would be more apt as we shall see below. It would not do justice to Leonardo to mention only his scientific achievements without mentioning his talent as a painter.

His true genius was not as a scientist or an artist, but as a combination of the two: an "artist-engineer". He did not sign his paintings and only 24 of his paintings are known to exist plus a further 6 paintings whose authentication is disputed. He did however make hundreds of drawings most of which were contained in his copious notes.

This was the volume of Leonardo's manuscripts transcribed and compiled by Melzi. The engravings needed for reproducing Leonardo's original drawings were made by another famous painter, Nicolas Poussin.

As the title suggests it was intended as technical manual for artists however it does contain some scientific notes about light, shade and optics in so far as they affect art and painting. For the same reason it also contains a small section of Leonardo's scientific works about anatomy. The publication of this volume in was the first time examples of the contents of Leonardo's notebooks were revealed to the world but it was years after his death.

The full range of his "known" scientific work was only made public little by little many years later. Leonardo was one of the world's greatest artists, the few paintings he made were unsurpassed and his draughtsmanship had a photographic quality.

Just seven examples of his well known artworks are mentioned here. After serving his apprenticeship with Verrocchio, Leonardo had a continuous flow of military commissions throughout his working life. In the ruthless and murderous Cesare Borgia , illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI and seducer of his own younger sister Lucrezia Borgia , appointed Leonardo as military engineer to his court where he became friends with Niccolo Machiavelli , Borgia's influential advisor.

These commissions gave Leonardo ample scope to develop his interest in military machines. Leonardo designed war machines for both offensive and defensive use.

They were designed to provide mobility and flexibility on the battlefield which he believed was crucial to victory. He also designed machines to use gunpowder which was still in its infancy in the fifteenth century. They included a triple barrelled cannon and an eight barrelled gun with eight muskets mounted side by side as well as a 33 barrelled version with three banks of eleven muskets designed to enable one set of eleven guns to be fired while a second set cooled off and a third set was being reloaded.

The banks were arranged in the form of a triangle with a shaft passing through the middle so that the banks could be rotated to bring the loaded set to the top where it could be fired again. Leonardo studied the flight of birds and after the legendary Icarus was one of the first to attempt to design human powered flying machines, recording his ideas in numerous drawings. A step up from Chinese kites.

The following are examples of some of the tools and scientific instruments designed by da Vinci which were found in his notes. As part of his training in Veroccio's studio, like any artist, Leonardo studied anatomy as an aid to figure drawing, however starting around and later with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre he made much more in depth studies of the body, its organs and how they function.

Because the bulk of his work was not published for over years, his observations could possibly have prompted an earlier advance in medical science had they been made available during his lifetime. At least his drawings provided a useful resource for future students of anatomy. Leonardo had an insatiable curiosity about both nature and science and made extensive observations which were recorded in his notebooks.

He did not however develop any new scientific theories or laws. Instead he used the knowledge gained from his observations to improve his skills as an artist and to invent a constant stream of useful machines and devices.

Leonardo unquestionably had one of the greatest inventive minds of all time, but very few of his designs were ever constructed at the time. The reason normally given is that the technology didn't exist during his lifetime. With his skilled draughtsmanship, Leonardo's designs looked great on paper but in reality many of them would not actually work in practice, an essential criterion for any successful invention, and this has since been borne out by subsequent attempts to construct the devices as described in his plans.

This should not however detract in any way from Leonardo's reputation as an inventor. His innovations were way ahead of their time, unique, wide ranging and based on sound engineering principles. What was missing was the science. At least he had the benefits of Archimedes ' knowledge of levers, pulleys and gears, all of which he used extensively, but that was the limit of available science.

Newton's Laws of Motion were not published until two centuries after Leonardo was working on his designs. The science of strength of materials was also unheard of until Newton's time when Hooke made some initial observations about stress and strain and there was certainly no data available to Leonardo about the engineering properties of materials such as tensile, compressive, bending and impact strength or air pressure and the densities of the air and other materials.

Torricelli's studies on air pressure came about fifty years before Newton, and Bernoulli's theory of fluid flow , which describe the science behind aerodynamic lift, did not come till fifty 50 years after Newton. But, even if the science had existed, Leonardo lacked the mathematical skills to make the best of it. So it's not surprising that Leonardo had to make a lot of assumptions.

This did not so much affect the function of his mechanisms nor the operating principle on which they were based, rather it affected the scale and proportions of the components and the force or power needed to operate them. His armoured tank would have been immensely heavy and difficult to manoeuvre, and it's naval version would have sunk unless its buoyancy was improved. The wooden gears used would probably have been unable to transmit the enormous forces required to move these heavy vehicles.

The repeated recoil forces on his multiple-barrelled guns may have shattered their mounts, and his flying machines were very flimsy with inadequate area of the wings as well as the level of human power needed to keep them aloft.

So there was nothing fundamentally wrong with most of his designs and most of the shortcomings could have been overcome with iterative development and testing programmes to refine the designs.

Unfortunately Leonardo never had that opportunity. Leonardo was indeed a genius but his reputation has also been enhanced or distorted by uncritical praise. Speculation, rather than firm evidence, about the performance of some of the mechanisms mentioned in his notebooks and what may have been in the notebooks which have been lost, has incorrectly credited him with the invention of the telescope, mathematical calculating machines and the odometer to name just three examples.

Though he did experiment with optics and made drawings of lenses, he never mentioned in his notes, a telescope, or what he may have seen with it, so it is highly unlikely that he invented the telescope.

As for his so called calculating machine: It looked very similar to the calculator made by Pascal years later but it was in fact just a counting machine since it did not have an accumulator to facilitate calculations by holding two numbers at a time in the machine as in Pascal's calculator.

Leonardo's "telescope" and "calculating machine" are examples of uninformed speculation from tantalising sketches made, without corresponding explanations, in his notes. Such speculation is based on the reasoning that, if one of his sketches or drawings "looks like" some more recent device or mechanism, then it "must be" or actually "is" an early example of such a device.

Leonardo already had a well deserved reputation as a genius without this unnecessary gold plating. Similarly regarding the odometer: The claim by some, though not by Leonardo himself, that he invented the odometer implies that he was the first to envisage the concept of an odometer. The odometer was in fact invented by Vitruvius 15 centuries earlier. Leonardo invented "an" odometer, not "the" odometer.

Many inventions are simply improvements, alternatives or variations, of what went before. Without a knowledge of precedents, it is a mistake to extrapolate a specific case to a general conclusion.

Leonardo's design was based on measuring the rotation of gear wheels, whereas Vitruvius' design was based on counting tokens. Note that Vitruvius also mentions in his "Ten Books on Architecture" , designs for trebuchets, water wheels and battering rams protected by mobile siege sheds or armoured vehicles which were called "tortoises". It is rare to find an invention which depends completely on a unique new concept and many perfectly good inventions are improvements or alternatives to prior art.

This applies to some of Leonardo's inventions just as it does to the majority of inventions today. Nobody would or should claim that Leonardo invented the clock when his innovation was to incorporate a new mechanical movement into his own version of a clock, nor should they denigrate his actual invention.

It's a great pity that Leonardo kept his works secret and that they remained unseen for so many years after his death. How might technology have advanced if he had been willing to share his ideas, to explain them to his contemporaries and to benefit from their comments? The Crown thus started making specific grants of privilege to favoured manufacturers and traders, signified by Letters Patent , open letters marked with the King's Great Seal.

The system was open to corruption and in the Statute of Monopolies was enacted to curb these abuses. It was a fundamental change to patent law which took away the rights of the Crown to create trading monopolies and guaranteed the inventor the legal right of patents instead of depending on the royal prerogative.

So called patent law , or more generally intellectual property law , has undergone many changes since then to encompass new concepts such as copyrights and trademarks and is still evolving as and new technologies such as software and genetics demand new rules.

Indeed it had even been reinforced in the thirteenth century by St. Thomas Aquinas who proclaimed the unity of Aristotelian philosophy with the teachings of the church.

The credibility of new scientific ideas was judged against the ancient authority of Aristotle , Galen , Ptolemy and others whose science was based on rational thought which was considered to be superior to experimentation and empirical methods. Challenging these conventional ideas was considered to be a challenge to the church and scientific progress was hampered accordingly.

In medieval times, the great mass of the population had no access to formal education let alone scientific knowledge. Their view of science could be summed up in the words of Arthur C. Clarke , "Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic". Things began to change after when a few pioneering scientists discovered, and were able to prove, flaws in this ancient wisdom.

Once this happened others began to question accepted scientific theories and devised experiments to validate their ideas. In the past, such challenges had been hampered by the lack of accurate measuring instruments which had limited the range of experiments that could be undertaken and it was only in the seventeenth century that instruments such as microscopes, telescopes, clocks with minute hands, accurate weighing equipment, thermometers and manometers started to become available.

Experimenters were then able to develop new and more accurate measurement tools to run their experiments and to explore new scientific territories thus accelerating the growth of new scientific knowledge. The printing press was the great catalyst in this process. Scientists could publish their work, thus reaching a much greater audience, but just as important, it gave others working in the field, access to the latest developments.

It gave them the inspiration to explore these new scientific domains from a new perspective without having to go over ground already covered by others. The increasing use of gunpowder also had its effect.

Cannons and hand held weapons swept the aristocratic knight from the field of battle. Military advantage and power went to those with the most effective weapons and heads of state began to sponsor experimentation in order to gain that advantage.

Scientific method thus replaced rational thought as a basis for developing new scientific theories and over the next years scientific theories and scientific institutions were transformed, laying the foundations on which the later Industrial Revolution depended.

The Age of Reason marked the triumph of evidence over dogma. Or did it? There remained one great mystery yet to be unravelled but it was another years before it came up for serious consideration: The Origin of Species. Such heresies were unthinkable at the time. They not only contradicted conventional wisdom that the World was the centre of the universe but worse still they undermined the story of creation, one of the fundamental beliefs of the Christian religion.

Dangerous stuff! It was not until around that Copernicus completed the work which he called De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium " On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres " but he still declined to publish it. Historians do not agree on whether this was because Copernicus was unsure that his observations and his calculations would be sufficiently robust enough to challenge Ptolemy's Almagest which had survived almost years of scrutiny or whether he feared the wrath of the church.

Copernicus' model however was simpler than Ptolemy's geocentric model and matched more closely the observed motions of the planets. He eventually agreed to publish the work at the end of his life and the first printed copy was reportedly delivered to him on his deathbed, at the age of seventy, in As it turned out, "De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium" was put on the Catholic church's index of prohibited books in , as a result of Galileo's support for its revolutionary theory, and remained there until One of the most important books ever written, De Revolutionibus' ideas ignited the Scientific Revolution See above , but only about or were printed and it became known recently as "the book that nobody read".

Because it was often inconvenient or difficult to measure large distances directly, he described how the distance to a distant target location could be determined locally, without actually going there, by using only angle measurements. By forming triangles to the target from reference points on a local baseline, and measuring the angles between the baseline and the lines between the reference points and the target at the vertex of the triangle, the distance to the target could be calculated using simple trigonometry.

It was thus easier to survey the countryside and construct maps by dividing the area into triangles rather than squares. This method was first used in B.

Triangulation is still used today in applications from surveying to celestial navigation. In Frisius was also the first to describe how longitude could be determined by comparing local solar time with the time at some reference location provided by an accurate clock but no such clocks were available at the time.

He carried out his research on the corpses of executed criminals and discovered that the research and conclusions published by the previous, undisputed authority on this subject, Galen , could not possibly have been based on an actual human body. Versalius was one of the first to rely on direct observations and scientific method rather than rational logic as practiced by the ancient philosophers and in so doing overturned years of conventional wisdom.

Such challenges to long held theories marked the start of the Scientific Revolution. It was simply a jet of steam impinging on the blades of a paddle wheel mounted on the end of the spit. Like Hero's reaction turbine it was not developed at the time for use in more useful applications. He lived before the invention of the telescope and his measurements were made with a cross staff , a simple mechanical device similar to a protractor used for measuring angles.

Nevertheless, despite his primitive instruments, he set new standards for precise and objective measurements but he still relied on empirical observations rather than mathematics for his predictions. Brahe accepted Copernicus ' heliocentric model for the orbits of planets which explained the apparent anomalies in their orbits exhibited by Ptolemy 's geocentric model, however he still clung on to the Ptolemaic model for the orbits of the Sun and Moon revolving around the Earth as this fitted nicely with the notion of Heaven and Earth and did not cause any conflicts with religious beliefs.

However, using the data gathered together with Brahe, Kepler was able to confirm the heliocentric model for the orbits of planets, including the Earth, and to derive mathematical laws for their movements.

A wealthy, hot-headed and extroverted nobleman, said to own one percent of the entire wealth of Denmark, Brahe had a lust for life and food. He wore a gold prosthesis in place of his nose which it was claimed had been cut off by his cousin in a duel over who was the better mathematician.

In , Brahe died in great pain in mysterious circumstances, eleven days after becoming ill during a banquet. Until recently the accepted explanation of the cause of death, provided by Kepler, was that it was an infection arising from a strained bladder, or from rupture of the bladder, resulting from staying too long at the dining table. By examining Brahe's remains in , Danish toxicologist Bent Kaempe determined that Brahe had died from acute Mercury poisoning which would have exhibited similar symptoms.

Among the many suspects, in the finger was firmly pointed by writers Joshua and Anne-Lee Gilder , at Kepler, the frail, introverted son of a poor German family. Kepler had the motive, he was consumed by jealousy of Brahe and he wanted his data which could make him famous but it had been denied to him. He also had the means and the opportunity. After Tycho's death when his family were distracted by grief, Kepler simply walked away with the priceless observations which belonged to Tycho's heirs.

With only a few tantalising facts to go on, historians attempt to construct a more complete picture of what happened in the distant past. In Brahe's case there could be another explanation of his demise. From the available facts it could be concluded the Brahe's death was due to an accidental overdose of Mercury, which at the time was the conventional medication prescribed for the treatment for syphilis, or from syphilis itself.

This is corroborated by the fact that one of the symptoms of the advanced state of the disease is the loss of the nose due to the collapse of the bridge tissue. Brahe's hedonistic lifestyle could well have made this a possibility. Kepler's actions in purloining of Brahe's data could have been a simple act of opportunism rather than the motivation for murder.

It has been variously called an air thermometer or a water thermometer but it was called a thermoscope at the time. His "thermometer" consisted of a glass bulb at the end of a long glass tube held vertically with the open end immersed in a vessel of water.

As the temperature changed the water would rise or fall in the tube due to the contraction or expansion of the air. It was sensitive to air pressure and could only be used to indicate temperature changes since it had no scale. In Italian Santorio Santorio added a scale to the apparatus creating the first true thermometer and for the first time, temperatures could be quantified.

There is no evidence that the decorative, so called, Galileo thermometers based on the Archimedes principle were invented by Galileo or that he ever saw one. They are comprised of several sealed glass floats in a sealed liquid filled glass cylinder.

The density of the liquid varies with the temperature and the floats are designed with different densities so as to float or sink at different temperatures. There were however thriving glass blowing and thermometer crafts based in Florence Tuscany where the Academia del Cimento, which was noted for its instrument making, produced many of these thermometers also known as Florentine thermometers or Infingardi Lazy-Ones or Termometros Lentos Slow because of the slowness of the motion of the small floating spheres in the alcohol of the vial.

It is quite likely that these designs were the work of the Grand Duke of Tuscany Ferdinand II who had a special interest in thermometers and meteorology. In it he distinguished for the first time static electric forces from magnetic forces.

He discovered that the Earth is a giant magnet just like one of the stones of Peregrinus , explaining how compasses work. He is credited with coining the word " electric " which comes from the Greek word " elektron " meaning amber. Many wondrous powers have been ascribed to magnets and to this day magnetic bracelets are believed by some to have therapeutic benefits. In Gilbert's time it was believed that an adulteress could be identified by placing a magnet under her pillow.

This would cause her to scream or be thrown out of bed as she slept. Gilbert proved amongst other things that the smell of garlic did not affect a ship's compass. It is not known whether he experimented with adulteresses in his bed.

Gilbert was the English champion of the experimental method of scientific discovery considered inferior to rational thought by the Greek philosopher Aristotle and his followers.

He held the Copernican or heliocentric view, dangerous at the time, that the Sun, not the Earth was not the centre of the universe. He was a contemporary of the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei who made a principled stand in defence of the founding of physics on scientific method and precise measurements rather than on metaphysical principles and formal logic.

These views brought Galileo into serious confrontation with the church and he was tried and punished for his heresies. Experimental method rather than rational thought was the principle behind the Scientific Revolution which separated Science theories which can be proved from Philosophy theories which can not be proved.

Gilbert died of Bubonic plague in leaving his books, globes, instruments and minerals to the College of Physicians but they were destroyed in in the great fire of London which mercifully also brought the plague to an end. The method employed a solid diffusion process involving the diffusion of carbon into the wrought iron to increase its carbon content to between 0. The nature of the difusion process, resulted in a non-uniform carbon content which was high near the surface of the bar, diminishing towards its centre and the bars could still contain slag inclusions from the original precursor bloom from which the wrought iron was made.

The process also caused blistering of the steel, hence the product made this way was called blister steel. He heated a mixture of powdered coal and heavy spar Barium sulphate and spread it over an iron bar. It did not turn into Gold when it cooled, as expected, but he was astonished to see it glow in the dark. Though the glow faded it could be "reanimated" by exposing it to the sun and so became known as "lapis solaris" or "sun stone", a primitive method of solar energy storage in chemical form.

He called it a biliteral code. It is directly equivalent to the five bit binary Baudot code of ones and zeros used for over years for transmitting data in twentieth century telegraphic communications.

More importantly Bacon, together with Gilbert , was an early champion of scientific method although it is not known whether they ever met. Bacon criticized the notion that scientific advances should be made through rational deduction. He advocated the discovery of new knowledge through scientific experimentation.

Phenomena would be observed and hypotheses made based on the observations. Tests would then be conducted to verify the hypotheses. If the tests produced reproducible results then conclusions could be made.

In his publication "The Advancement of Learning", Bacon coined the dictum "If a man will begin with certainties, he will end up with doubts; but if he will be content to begin with doubts, he shall end up in certainties". Bacon died as a result of one of his experiments. He investigated preserving meat by stuffing a chicken with snow. The experiment was a success but Bacon died of bronchitis contracted either from the cold chicken or from the damp bed, reserved for VIP's and unused for a year, where he was sent to recover from his chill.

There are many "Baconians" who claim today that at least some of Shakespeare 's plays were actually written by Bacon. One of the many arguments put forward is that only Bacon possessed the necessary wide range of knowledge and erudition displayed in Shakespeare's plays.

The patent was not granted on the basis that "too many people already have knowledge of this invention". Nevertheless, Lippershey's patent application was the first documented evidence of such a device. Legend has it that the telescope was discovered by accident when Lippershey, or two children playing with lenses in his shop, noticed that the image of a distant church tower became much clearer when viewed through two lenses, one in front of the other.

The discovery revolutionised astronomy. Up to that date the pioneering work of Copernicus , Brahe and Kepler had all been based on many thousands of painstaking observations made with the naked eye without the advantage of a telescope. From this mass of data on planetary movements, collected without the help of a telescope, Kepler derived three Laws of Planetary Motion , the first two published as "Astronomia Nova" in and the third as "Harmonices Mundi" in These laws are:.

Kepler's laws were the first to enable accurate predictions of future planetary orbits and at the same time they effectively disproved the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic model of geocentric planetary motion. Further evidence was provided during the same period by Galileo See following entry.

Kepler derived these laws empirically from the years of data gathered by Brahe, a monumental task, but he was unable to explain the underlying principles involved. The answer was eventually provided by Newton. Recently Kepler's brilliance has been tarnished by forensic studies which suggest that he murdered Brahe in order to get his hands on his observations.

See Brahe. Using a telescope he had built himself, based on what he had heard about Lippershey's recent invention, he observed four moons, which had not previously been visible with the naked eye, orbiting the planet Jupiter. This was revolutionary news since it was definitive proof that the Earth was not the centre of all celestial movements in the universe, overturning the geocentric or Ptolemaic model of the universe which for more than a thousand years had been the bedrock of religious and Aristotelian scientific thought.

At the same time his observations of mountains on the Earth's moon contradicted Aristotelian theory, which held that heavenly bodies were perfectly smooth spheres. Publication of these observations in his treatise Sidereus Nuncius Starry Messenger gave fresh impetus to the Scientific Revolution in astronomy started by the publication of Copernicus ' heliocentric theory almost years before, but brought Galileo into a confrontation with the church.

Charged with heresy, Galileo was made to kneel before the inquisitor and confess that the heliocentric theory was false. He was found guilty and sentenced to house arrest for the rest of his life. In , having determined that Jupiter's four brightest natural satellites, Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, also known as the Galilean Moons , made regular orbits around the planet, Galileo noted that the time at which they passed a reference position in their orbits, such as the point at which they begin to eclipse the planet, would be both regular and the same for any observer in the World.

This could therefore be used as the basis for a universal timer or clock which in turn could be used to determine longitude. Galileo carried out many investigations and experiments to determine the laws governing mechanical movement. He is famously reputed to have demonstrated that all bodies fall to Earth at the same rate, regardless of their mass by dropping different sized balls from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa , thus disproving Aristotle's theory that the speed of falling bodies is directly proportional to their weight but there is no evidence that Galileo actually performed this experiment.

However such an experiment was also performed by Simon Stevin in In , Apollo 15 astronaut David Scott repeated Galileo's experiment on the airless Moon with a feather and a hammer demonstrating that, unhampered by any atmosphere, they both fell to the ground at the same rate.

Galileo actually attempted to measure the rate at which a body falls to Earth under the influence of gravity , but he did not have an accurate method of measuring the time since the speed of the falling body was too fast and the duration too short.

He therefore determined to "dilute" the effect of gravity by rolling a ball down an inclined plane to slow it down and increase the transit time. He expected to find that the distance travelled would increase by a fixed amount for each fixed increment in time.

Instead he discovered that the distance travelled is proportional to the square of the time. See more about Galileo's "Laws of Motion".

In his inquisitive mind led him to make a remarkable discovery about the motion of pendulums. While sitting in a cathedral he observed the swinging of a chandelier and using his pulse to determine the period of its swing, he was greatly surprised to find that as the movement of the pendulum slowed down, its period remained the same.

His curiosity piqued he followed up with a series of experiments and determined that the only factor affecting the period of the pendulum's swing was its length. It was independent of the arc of the swing,the weight of the pendulum bob and the speed of the swing. By using pendulums of different length Galileo was able to produce timing devices which were much more accurate than his pulse.

It can't have been easy, counting and keeping a running total of pendulum swings and heart rate pulses at the same time. About 40 years later, Christiaan Huygens developed a mathematical equation defining the period of the pendulum and went on to use the pendulum in the construction of the first accurate clocks.

The logarithmic tables contained entries which had taken him 20 years to compute. Napier's logarithms were not the logarithms we would recognise today. Neither were they Natural logarithms with a base of "e" as is often misquoted.

Natural logarithms were invented by Euler over a century later. Simple though the idea of logarithms may be, it had not been considered before because with a simple base of 2 and exponent n , where n is a whole number, the numbers represented by 2 n become very large very quickly as n increases.

This meant there was no obvious way of representing the intervening numbers. The idea of fractional exponents would have, and did eventually solve this problem but at the end of the sixteenth century, people were just getting to grips with the notion of zero and they were not comfortable with idea of fractional powers.

To design a way of representing more numbers, while still retaining whole number exponents, Napier came up with the idea of making the base number smaller. But, if the base number was very small there would be too many numbers. Using the number 1 unity as a base would not work either since all the powers of 1 are equal to 1. He therefore chose -7 or 0. Napier named his exponents logarithms from the Greek logos and arithmos roughly translated as ratio-number.

Napier's publication was an instant hit with astronomers and mathematicians. Among these was Henry Briggs , mathematics professor at Gresham College, London who travelled miles to Edinburgh the following year to meet the inventor of this new mathematical tool.

He stayed a month with Napier and in discussions they considered two major improvements that they both readily accepted. Briggs suggested that the tables should be constructed from a base of 10 rather than -7 and this meant adopting fractional exponents and Napier agreed that the logarithm of 1 should be 0 zero rather than the logarithm of 10 7 being 0 as it was in his original tables.

Briggs' reward was to have the job of calculating the new logarithmic tables which he eventually completed and published as Arithmetica Logarithmica in His tables contained 30, natural numbers to 14 places.

Meanwhile in Napier published a description of a new invention in his Rabdologiae , a "collection of rods". It was a practical method of multiplication using "numbering rods" with numbers marked off on them.

Known as Napier's Bones" , surprisingly they did not use his method of logarithms. See also the following item - Gunter. The predecessor to the slide rule. See the following item. Seventeenth century methods of measuring the speed of sound were usually based on observations of artillery fire and were notoriously inaccurate.

Since the transit time of light over a given distance is negligible compared with the transit time of sound, by measuring the delay between seeing the powder flash from a distant cannon and hearing the explosion, the time for the sound to cover a given distance and hence the speed could be estimated. For practical measurements the distance of the artillery from the observer had to be a kilometre or more to obtain a reasonably long delay of a few seconds which could be measured by available means.

Even so, the only available methods for measuring such short times were by means of a pendulum or by counting the observer's own pulse beats which were hopelessly imprecise, error prone and dependant on operator reaction times. Furthermore, because the effects of temperature, pressure, density, wind and moisture content of the air on the speed of propagation were unknown, they were not taken into account in the measurements.

Variations on the above procedure are still used today as traditional folk methods of estimating the distance to a lightning strike by counting the seconds between the flash and its following thunderclap. Alternative set-ups, used at the time, for calculating the speed of sound involved creating a sharp noise in front of a wall or cliff and measuring the time delay before hearing its echo.

The round trip distance to the wall and back divided by the time gives the speed of sound. Echo delays in practical, controlled sites are usually very short. A distance of metres to the reflecting surface metres round trip results in an echo delay of only around half a second.

This leads to great difficulties in measuring the time delay with the crude equipment available. Gassendi was an anatomist and did not believe the wave theory of sound. He believed that sound and light are carried by particles which are not affected by the surrounding medium of air or wind through which they travel.

In other words, sound was a stream of atoms emitted from the sounding body and the speed of sound is the velocity of the moving atoms, and its frequency is the number of atoms emitted per second. He also established that the intensity of sound, like that of light, is inversely proportional to the distance from its source and showed the speed to be independent of pitch as well as intensity loudness.

The same year Marsenne also published his "Harmonie Universelle" describing the acoustic behaviour of stretched strings as used in musical instruments which provided the basis for modern musical acoustics.

The relationship between frequency and the tension, weight, and the length of the strings was expressed in three laws known as Mersenne's Laws as follows:. The fundamental frequency f 0 of a vibrating string that is without harmonics is:.

The unexplained difference is attributed to the assumptopns made and not made. These include the following:. In modern terms, the rapidly fluctuating compression and expansion of air through which the sound wave passes is an adiabatic process , not an isothermal process. Known as the Pascaline , it was the forerunner of computing machines.

Despite its utility, this great innovation failed to capture the imagination or the attention of the scientific and commercial public and only fifty were made. Thirty years later it was eclipsed by Leibniz ' four function calculator which could perform multiplication and division as well as addition and subtraction. Pascal also did pioneering work on hydraulics, resulting in the statement of Pascal's principle , that "pressure will be transmitted equally throughout a confined fluid at rest, regardless of where the pressure is applied".

He explained how this principle could be used to exert very high forces in a hydraulic press. Such a system would have two cylinders with pistons with different cross-sectional areas connected to a common reservoir or simply connected by a pipe.

When a force is exerted on the smaller piston, it creates a pressure in the reservoir proportional to the area of the piston.

This same pressure also acts on the larger piston, but because its area is greater, the pressure is translated into a larger force on the larger piston. The difference in the two forces is proportional to the difference in area of the two pistons and the hydraulic, mechanical advantage is equal to the ratio of the areas of the two pistons.

Thus the cylinders act in a similar way to a lever , as described by Archimedes , which effectively magnifies the force exerted.

Besides hydraulics, Pascal explained the concept of a vacuum. At the time, the conventional Aristotelian view was that the space must be full with some invisible matter and a vacuum was considered an impossibility. In Pascal described a convenient shortcut for determining the coefficients of a binomial series, now called Pascal's Triangle and the following year, in response to a request from a gambling friend, he used it to derive a method of calculating the odds of particular outcomes of games of chance.

In this case, two players wishing to finish a game early, wanted to divide their remaining stakes fairly depending on their chances of winning from that point.

To arrive at a solution, he corresponded with fellow mathematician Fermat and together they worked out the notion of expected values and laid the foundations of the mathematical theory of probabilities.

Pascal did not claim to have invented his eponymous triangle. It was known to Persian mathematicians in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and to Chinese mathematicians in the eleventh and thirteenth centuries as well as others in Europe and was often named after local mathematicians.

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