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Children acquire a spoken language in a few years. Five-to-six-year-old English learners have vocabularies of 2, to 5, words, and add 5, words per year for the first several years of schooling.
This exponential learning rate cannot be accounted for by the instruction they receive. Instead, children learn that the meaning of a new word can be inferred because it occurs in the same context as familiar words e. The environment in which children live may also impact their ability to acquire reading skills. Children who are regularly exposed to chronic environmental noise pollution, such as highway traffic noise, have been known to show decreased ability to discriminate between phonemes oral language sounds as well as lower reading scores on standardized tests.
Children learn to speak naturally � by listening to other people speak. However, reading is not a natural process, and many children need to learn to read through a process that involves "systematic guidance and feedback". So, "reading to children is not the same as teaching children to read". However, there is some evidence that "shared reading" with children does help to improve reading if the children's attention is directed to the words on the page as they are being read to.
The path to skilled reading involves learning the alphabetic principle , phonemic awareness , phonics , fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. British psychologist Uta Frith introduced a three stages model to acquire skilled reading. Stage one is the logographic or pictorial stage where students attempt to grasp words as objects, an artificial form of reading. Stage two is the phonological stage where students learn the relationship between the graphemes letters and the phonemes sounds.
Stage three is the orthographic stage where students read familiar words more quickly than unfamiliar words, and word length gradually ceases to play a role. The Common Core State Standards Initiative CCSS in the USA has standards for foundational reading skills in kindergarten and grade one that include instruction in print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics, word recognition and fluency. Some scholars favor a developmentally appropriate practice DPA in which formal instruction on reading begins when children are about six or seven years old.
And to support that theory some point out that children in Finland start school at age 7 Finland ranked 5th in the PIRLS international grade four reading achievement. Whitehurst , Director, Brown Center on Education Policy, part of Brookings Institution [92] said David Elkind is relying too much on philosophies of education rather than science and research.
He continues to say education practices are "doomed to cycles of fad and fancy" until they become more based on evidence-based practice.
On the subject of Finland's academic results, as some researchers point out, prior to starting school Finnish children must participate in one year of compulsory free pre-primary education and most are reading before they start school. Other researchers and educators favor limited amounts of literacy instruction at the age of four and five, in addition to non-academic, intellectually stimulating activities.
Some say that babies learn to read differently and more easily than children who learn to read in school from formal instruction. They also suggest, the most important aspect of early baby reading is interaction with loving parents and bonding. Reviews of the academic literature by the Education Endowment Foundation in the UK have found that starting literacy teaching in preschool has "been consistently found to have a positive effect on early learning outcomes" [] and that "beginning early years education at a younger age appears to have a high positive impact on learning outcomes".
There does not appear to be any definitive research about the "magic window" to begin reading instruction.
Researcher Timothy Shanahan , suggests, "Start teaching reading from the time you have kids available to teach, and pay attention to how they respond to this instruction�both in terms of how well they are learning what you are teaching, and how happy and invested they seem to be.
If you haven't started yet, don't feel guilty, just get going. Some education researchers suggest the teaching of the various reading components by specific grade levels. D and Louisa Moats, Ed. According to some researchers, learners children and adults progress through several stages while first learning to read in English, and then refining their reading skills.
One of the recognized experts in this area is Harvard professor Jeanne Sternlicht Chall. In she published a book entitled Stages of Reading Development that proposed six stages. The emerging pre-reader stage, also known as reading readiness , usually lasts for the first five years of a child's life. Reading to children helps them to develop their vocabulary, a love of reading, and phonemic awareness , the ability to hear and manipulate the individual sounds phonemes of oral language.
And children will often "read" stories they have memorized. However, in the late s United States' researchers found that the traditional way of reading to children made little difference in their later ability to read because children spend relatively little time actually looking at the text. Yet, in a shared reading program with four-year-old children, teachers found that directing children's attention to the letters and words e.
Novice readers continue to develop their phonemic awareness, and come to realise that the letters graphemes connect to the sounds phonemes of the language; known as decoding, phonics , and the alphabetic principle.
However, it is a mistake to assume a reader understands the meaning of a text merely because they can decode it. Vocabulary and oral language comprehension are also important parts of text comprehension as described in the Simple view of reading and Scarborough's Reading Rope.
Reading and speech are codependent: reading promotes vocabulary development and a richer vocabulary facilitates skilled reading. The transition from the novice reader stage to the decoding stage is marked by a reduction of painful pronunciations and in its place the sounds of a smoother, more confident reader.
For example, in the English language, readers now learn the variations of the vowel-based rimes e. As readers move forward, they learn the make up of morphemes i. They learn the common morphemes such as "s" and "ed" and see them as "sight chunks".
In the beginning of this stage a child will often be devoting so much mental capacity to the process of decoding that they will have no understanding of the words being read. It is nevertheless an important stage, allowing the child to achieve their ultimate goal of becoming fluent and automatic. It is in the decoding phase that the child will get to what the story is really about, and to learn to re-read a passage when necessary so as to truly understand it.
The goal of this stage is to "go below the surface of the text", and in the process the reader will build their knowledge of spelling substantially. Teachers and parents may be tricked by fluent-sounding reading into thinking that a child understands everything that they are reading. As the content of what they are able to read becomes more demanding, good readers will develop knowledge of figurative language and irony which helps them to discover new meanings in the text.
Children improve their comprehension when they use a variety of tools such as connecting prior knowledge, predicting outcomes, drawing inferences, and monitoring gaps in their understanding. One of the most powerful moments is when fluent comprehending readers learn to enter into the lives of imagined heroes and heroines.
The educational psychologist , G. Michael Pressley , concluded there are two important aids to fluent comprehension: explicit instruction in major content areas by a child's teacher, and the child's own desire to read. At the end of this stage many processes are starting to become automatic, allowing the reader to focus on meaning.
With the decoding process almost automatic by this point, the brain learns to integrate more metaphorical , inferential, analogical , background and experiential knowledge. This stage in learning to read will often last until early adulthood. At the expert stage it will usually only take a reader one-half second to read almost any word. There is no single definition of Science of reading SOR. SOR includes any research and evidence about how humans learn to read, and how reading should be taught.
This includes areas such as oral reading fluency, vocabulary, morphology , reading comprehension, text, spelling and pronunciation, thinking strategies, oral language proficiency, working memory training, and written language performance e.
In addition, some educators feel that SOR should include digital literacy; background knowledge; content-rich instruction; infrastructural pillars curriculum, reimagined teacher preparation, and leadership ; adaptive teaching recognizing the student's individual, culture and linguistic strengths ; bi-literacy development; equity, social justice and supporting underserved populations e.
Some researchers suggest there is a need for more studies on the relationship between theory and practice. They say "we know more about the science of reading than about the science of teaching based on the science of reading", and "there are many layers between basic science findings and teacher implementation that must be traversed".
In cognitive science there is likely no area that has been more successful than the study of reading. Yet, in many countries reading levels are considered low.
Many researchers are concerned that low reading levels are due to the manner in which reading is taught. They point to three areas: a contemporary reading science has had very little impact on educational practice mainly because of a "two-cultures problem separating science and education", b current teaching practices rest on outdated assumptions that make learning to read harder than it needs to be, and c connecting evidence-based practice to educational practice would be beneficial but is extremely difficult to achieve because many teachers are not properly trained in the science of reading.
The simple view of reading is a scientific theory about reading comprehension. Neither is enough on their own. In other words, they need the ability to recognize and process e.
Students are not reading if they can decode words but do not understand their meaning. Similarly, students are not reading if they cannot decode words that they would ordinarily recognize and understand if they heard them spoken out loud. As shown in the graphic, the Simple View of Reading proposes four broad categories of developing readers: typical readers; poor readers general reading disability ; dyslexics ; [] and hyperlexics [] [].
Hollis Scarborough , the creator of the Reading Rope and senior scientist at Haskins Laboratories , is a leading researcher of early language development and its connection to later literacy. Scarborough published the Reading Rope infographic in using strands of rope to illustrate the many ingredients that are involved in becoming a skilled reader. The upper strands represent language-comprehension and reinforce one another. The lower strands represent word-recognition and work together as the reader becomes accurate, fluent, and automatic through practice.
The upper and lower strands all weave together to produce a skilled reader. More recent research by Laurie E. Cutting and Hollis S. Scarborough has highlighted the importance of executive function processes e.
Reading comprehension strategies, such as summarizing, may help. Several researchers and neuroscientist have attempted to explain how the brain reads. They have written articles and books, and created websites and YouTube videos to help the average consumer.
Neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene says that a few simple truths should be accepted by all, namely: a all children have similar brains, are well tuned to systematic grapheme-phoneme correspondences, "and have everything to gain from phonics � the only method that will give them the freedom to read any text", b classroom size is largely irrelevant if the proper teaching methods are used, c it is essential to have standardized screening tests for dyslexia , followed by appropriate specialized training, and d while decoding is essential, vocabulary enrichment is equally important.
Reading is an intensive process in which the eye quickly moves to assimilate the text � seeing just accurately enough to interpret groups of symbols.
When reading, the eye moves continuously along a line of text, but makes short rapid movements saccades intermingled with short stops fixations. There is considerable variability in fixations the point at which a saccade jumps to and saccades between readers, and even for the same person reading a single passage of text. When reading, the eye has a perceptual span of about 20 slots. In the best-case scenario and reading English, when the eye is fixated on a letter, four to five letters to the right and three to four letters to the left can be clearly identified.
Beyond that, only the general shape of some letters can be identified. Research published in concluded that the silent reading rate of adults in English for non-fiction is in the range of to words per minute wpm ; and for fiction the range is to wpm. In the early s the dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud was proposed, according to which there are two separate mental mechanisms involved in reading aloud, with output from both contributing to the pronunciation of written words. The other is the nonlexical or sublexical route, in which the reader "sounds out" decodes written words.
Evidence-based reading instruction refers to practices having research evidence showing their success in improving reading achievement. It found no difference in reading times, however, reading from paper has a small advantage in reading performance and metacognition.
Apart from that, depending on the circumstances, some people prefer one medium over the other and each appears to have its own unique advantages. Some teachers, even after obtaining a master's degree in education, don't feel they have the necessary knowledge and skills to teach all students how to read.
In an Education Week Research Center survey of more than professors of reading instruction, just 22 percent said their philosophy of teaching early reading centered on explicit, systematic phonics with comprehension as a separate focus. However, at least one State, Arkansas , is requiring every elementary and special education teacher to be proficient in the scientific research on reading by ; causing Amy Murdoch, an associate professor and the director of the reading science program at Mount St.
Educators have debated for years about which method is best to teach reading for the English language. There are three main methods, phonics , whole language and balanced literacy. There are also a variety of other areas and practices such as phonemic awareness , fluency, reading comprehension, sight words and sight vocabulary, the three-cueing system the searchlights model in England , guided reading , shared reading , and leveled reading.
Each practice is employed in different manners depending on the country and the specific school division. In , some researchers reached two conclusions: 1 "mastering the alphabetic principle is essential" and 2 "instructional techniques namely, phonics that teach this principle directly are more effective than those that do not". However, while they make it clear they have some fundamental disagreements with some of the claims made by whole-language advocates, some principles of whole language have value such as the need to ensure that students are enthusiastic about books and eager to learn to read.
Phonics emphasizes the alphabetic principle � the idea that letters graphemes represent the sounds of speech phonemes. Unsystematic phonics teaches phonics on a "when needed" basis and in no particular sequence. Systematic phonics uses a planned, sequential introduction of a set of phonic elements along with explicit teaching and practice of those elements.
The National Reading Panel NPR concluded that systematic phonics instruction is more effective than unsystematic phonics or non-phonics instruction. Phonics approaches include analogy phonics, analytic phonics, embedded phonics with mini-lessons, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics. According to a review of research related to English speaking poor readers , phonics training is effective for improving literacy-related skills, particularly the fluent reading of words and non-words, and the accurate reading of irregular words.
In addition, phonics produces higher achievement for all beginning readers, and the greatest improvement is experienced by students who are at risk of failing to learn to read. While some children are able to infer these rules on their own, some need explicit instruction on phonics rules. Some phonics instruction has marked benefits such as expansion of a student's vocabulary. Overall, children who are directly taught phonics are better at reading, spelling and comprehension.
A challenge in teaching phonics is that in some languages, such as English, complex letter-sound correspondences can cause confusion for beginning readers. For this reason, it is recommended that teachers of English-reading begin by introducing the "most frequent sounds" and the "common spellings", and save the less frequent sounds and complex spellings for later. Phonics is gaining world-wide acceptance.
Phonics is taught in many different ways and it is often taught together with some of the following: oral language skills, [] [] concepts about print, [] phonological awareness , phonemic awareness , phonology , oral reading fluency , vocabulary, syllables , reading comprehension , spelling , word study, [] [] [] cooperative learning , multisensory learning , and guided reading.
And, phonics is often featured in discussions about science of reading , [] [] and evidence-based practices. The National Reading Panel U. Timothy Shanahan educator , a member of that panel, recommends that primary students receive 60�90 minutes per day of explicit, systematic, literacy instruction time; and that it be divided equally between a words and word parts e.
The Ontario Association of Deans of Education Canada published research Monograph 37 entitled Supporting early language and literacy with suggestions for parents and teachers in helping children prior to grade one.
It covers the areas of letter names and letter-sound correspondence phonics , as well as conversation, play-based learning, print, phonological awareness, shared reading, and vocabulary.
Some researchers report that teaching reading without teaching phonics is harmful to large numbers of students; yet not all phonics teaching programs produce effective results.
The reason is that the effectiveness of a program depends on using the right curriculum together with the appropriate approach to instruction techniques, classroom management, grouping, and other factors.
It is possible to teach most students how to read if we start early and follow the significant body of research showing which practices are most effective. Interest in evidence-based education appears to be growing. The BEE review concludes that a outcomes were positive for one-to-one tutoring, b outcomes were positive, but not as large, for one-to-small group tutoring, c there were no differences in outcomes between teachers and teaching assistants as tutors, d technology-supported adaptive instruction did not have positive outcomes, e whole-class approaches mostly cooperative learning and whole-school approaches incorporating tutoring obtained outcomes for struggling readers as large as those found for one- to-one tutoring, and benefitted many more students, and f approaches mixing classroom and school improvements, with tutoring for the most at-risk students , have the greatest potential for the largest numbers of struggling readers.
Robert Slavin, of BEE, goes so far as to suggest that states should "hire thousands of tutors" to support students scoring far below grade level�particularly in elementary school reading. What works clearinghouse allows you to see the effectiveness of specific programs.
For example, as of they have data on literacy programs. If you filter them by grade 1 only, all class types, all school types, all delivery methods, all program types, and all outcomes you receive 22 programs.
You can then view the program details and, if you wish, compare one with another. Systematic phonics is not one specific method of teaching phonics; it is a term used to describe phonics approaches that are taught explicitly and in a structured, systematic manner. They are systematic because the letters and the sounds they relate to are taught in a specific sequence, as opposed to incidentally or on a "when needed" basis. The NRP also found that systematic phonics instruction is effective with varying degrees when delivered through one-to-one tutoring, small groups, and teaching classes of students; and is effective from kindergarten onward, the earlier the better.
It helps significantly with word-reading skills and reading comprehension for kindergartners and 1st graders as well as for older struggling readers and reading disabled students. Benefits to spelling were positive for kindergartners and 1st graders but not for older students. Systematic phonics is sometimes mischaracterized as "skill and drill" with little attention to meaning. However, researchers point out that this impression is false. Teachers can use engaging games or materials to teach letter-sound connections, and it can also be incorporated with the reading of meaningful text.
Phonics can be taught systematically in a variety of ways, such as: analogy phonics, analytic phonics, phonics through spelling, and synthetic phonics. However, their effectiveness vary considerably because the methods differ in such areas as the range of letter-sound coverage, the structure of the lesson plans, and the time devoted to specific instructions. Systematic phonics has gained increased acceptance in different parts of the world since the completion of three major studies into teaching reading; one in the US in , [] [] another in Australia in , [] and the other in the UK in In , the UK Department of Education published a curriculum review that added support for systematic phonics.
In fact, systematic phonics in the UK is known as Synthetic phonics. Beginning as early as , several States in the USA have changed their curriculum to include systematic phonics instruction in elementary school.
Analogy phonics is a particular type of analytic phonics in which the teacher has students analyze phonic elements according to the speech sounds phonograms in the word. For example, a type of phonogram known in linguistics as a rime is composed of the vowel and the consonant sounds that follow it e.
Teachers using the analogy method may have students memorize a bank of phonograms, such as -at or -am , or use word families e. Analytic phonics does not involve pronouncing individual sounds phonemes in isolation and blending the sounds, as is done in synthetic phonics. Rather, it is taught at the word level and students learn to analyze letter-sound relationships once the word is identified.
Also, students might be asked to practice saying words with similar sounds such as b all, b at and b ite. Furthermore, students are taught consonant blends separate, adjacent consonants as units, such as br eak or shr ouds.
Embedded phonics , also known as incidental phonics , is the type of phonics instruction used in whole language programs. It is not systematic phonics. Short lessons are included based on phonics elements the students are having trouble with, or on a new or difficult phonics pattern that appears in a class reading assignment.
The focus on meaning is generally maintained, but the mini-lesson provides some time for focus on individual sounds and the letters that represent them. Embedded phonics is different from other methods because instruction is always in the context of literature rather than in separate lessons about distinct sounds and letters; and skills are taught when an opportunity arises, not systematically. For some teachers this is a method of teaching spelling by using the sounds phonemes.
It is taught systematically with guided lessons conducted in a direct and explicit manner including appropriate feedback.
Sometimes mnemonic cards containing individual sounds are used to allow the student to practice saying the sounds that are related to a letter or letters e.
Accuracy comes first, followed by speed. The sounds may be grouped by categories such as vowels that sound short e. When the student is comfortable recognizing and saying the sounds, the following steps might be followed: a the tutor says a target word and the student repeats it out loud, b the student writes down each individual sound letter until the word is completely spelled, saying each sound as it is written, and c the student says the entire word out loud.
An alternate method would be to have the student use mnemonic cards to sound-out spell the target word. Typically, the instruction starts with sounds that have only one letter and simple CVC words such as sat and pin. Then it progresses to longer words, and sounds with more than one letter e. Sometimes the student practices saying or sounding-out cards that contain entire words. Synthetic phonics , also known as blended phonics, is a systematic phonics method employed to teach students to read by sounding out the letters then blending the sounds to form the word.
This method involves learning how letters or letter groups represent individual sounds, and that those sounds are blended to form a word. The goal of either a blended phonics or synthetic phonics instructional program is that students identify the sound-symbol correspondences and blend their phonemes automatically.
Since , synthetic phonics has become the accepted method of teaching reading by phonics instruction in England, Scotland and Australia. The Rose Report from the UK concluded that systematic synthetic phonics was the most effective method for teaching reading.
It also suggests the "best teaching" included a brisk pace, engaging children's interest with multi-sensory activities and stimulating resources, praise for effort and achievement; and above all, the full backing of the headteacher.
It also has considerable support in some States in the U. In the US, a pilot program using the Core Knowledge Early Literacy program that used this type of phonics approach showed significantly higher results in K-3 reading compared with comparison schools. Resources for teaching phonics are available here. Phonemic awareness is the process by which the phonemes sounds of oral language are heard, interpreted, understood and manipulated � unrelated to their grapheme written language.
It is a sub-set of Phonological awareness that includes the manipulation of rhymes , syllables , and onsets and rimes , and is most prevalent in alphabetic systems.
When teaching phonemic awareness, the NRP found that better results were obtained with focused and explicit instruction of one or two elements, over five or more hours, in small groups, and using the corresponding graphemes letters. As mentioned earlier, some researchers feel that the most effective way of teaching phonemic awareness is through segmenting and blending, a key part of synthetic phonics. A critical aspect of reading comprehension is vocabulary development.
Otherwise, the reader must derive the meaning of the word using another strategy, such as context. If the development of the child's vocabulary is impeded by things such Byjus Class 6 Maths Notes Textbook as ear infections, that inhibit the child from hearing new words consistently, then the development of reading will also be impaired.
Sight words i. On the other hand, using sight words as a method of teaching reading in English is seen as being at odds with the alphabetic principle and treating English as though it was a logographic language e. Chinese or Japanese. In addition, according to research, whole-word memorisation is "labor-intensive", requiring on average about 35 trials per word.
And because a child will over time encounter many low-frequency words, "the phonological recoding mechanism is a very powerful, indeed essential, mechanism throughout reading development". They suggest that learners should focus on understanding the principles of phonics so they can recognize the phonemic overlaps among words e. Sight vocabulary is a part of the phonics method. It describes words that are stored in long-term memory and read automatically.
Skilled fully-alphabetic readers learn to store words in long-term memory without memorization i. It takes significantly less time than memorization. This process works for fully-alphabetic readers when reading simple decodable words from left to right through the word.
Irregular words pose more of a challenge, yet research in concluded that "fully-alphabetic students" learn irregular words more easily when they use a process called hierarchical decoding.
In this process, students, rather than decode from left to right, are taught to focus attention on the irregular elements such as a vowel-digraph and a silent-e; for example, break b � r � ea � k , height h � eigh � t , touch t � ou � ch , and make m � a � k e. Consequentially, they suggest that teachers and tutors should focus on "teaching decoding with more advanced vowel patterns before expecting young readers to tackle irregular words".
Fluency is ability to read orally with speed, accuracy, and vocal expression. The ability to read fluently is one of several critical factors necessary for reading comprehension. If a reader is not fluent, it may be difficult to remember what has been read and to relate the ideas expressed in the text to their background knowledge. This accuracy and automaticity of reading serves as a bridge between decoding and comprehension. The NRP describes reading comprehension as a complex cognitive process in which a reader intentionally and interactively engages with the text.
The science of reading says that reading comprehension is heavily dependent on word recognition i. Whole language has the reputation of being a meaning-based method of teaching reading that emphasizes literature and text comprehension. It discourages any significant use of phonics, if at all. Students are taught to use context and pictures to "guess" words they do not recognize, or even just skip them and read on.
It aims to make reading fun, yet many students struggle to figure out the specific rules of the language on their own, which causes the student's decoding and spelling to suffer. As of , whole language is widely used in the U. In his book, Reading in the brain , cognitive neuroscientist, Stanislas Dehaene , said "cognitive psychology directly refutes any notion of teaching via a 'global' or 'whole language' method.
Balanced literacy is not well defined, however it is intended as a method that combines elements of both phonics and whole language. The National Reading Panel concluded that phonics must be integrated with instruction in phonemic awareness, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.
And, some Byjus Maths Class 9 Notes Mp3 studies indicate that "the addition of language activities and tutoring to phonics produced larger effects than any of these components in isolation". They suggest that this may be a constructive way to view balanced reading instruction. However, balanced literacy has received criticism from researchers and others suggesting that, in many instances, it is merely whole language by another name.
According to phonics advocate and cognitive neuroscientist Mark Seidenberg , balanced literacy allows educators to diffuse the reading wars while not making specific recommendations for change. Instead, they should use evidence-based decoding methods such as systematic phonics. The three-cueing system the searchlights model in England is a theory that has been circulating since the s but its roots are in the theories proposed in s by Ken Goodman and Marie Clay that eventually became whole language , reading recovery and guided reading e.
The "meaning cues" are semantic "does it make sense in the context? According to some, three-cueing isn't the most effective way for beginning readers to learn how to decode printed text. Consequently, researchers such as cognitive neuroscientists Mark Seidenberg and professor Timothy Shanahan do not support the theory. They say the three-cueing system's value in reading instruction "is a magnificent work of the imagination", and it developed not because teachers lack integrity, commitment, motivation, sincerity, or intelligence, but because they "were poorly trained and advised" about the science of reading.
The three Ps approach is used by teachers, tutors and parents to guide oral reading practice with a struggling reader. However, for others it is very different. In the prompt step, the tutor does not suggest the student skip the word or guess the word based on the pictures or the first sound. Instead, they encourage student to use their decoding training to sound out the word, and use the context meaning to confirm they have found the correct word. Guided reading is small group reading instruction that is intended to allow for the differences in students' reading abilities.
It is no longer supported by the Primary National Strategy in England as Synthetic phonics is the officially recognized method for teaching reading. Shared oral reading is an activity whereby the teacher and students read from a shared text that is determined to be at the students' reading level. We will work on your suggestions as soon as possible.
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