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Fair-cooperation guarantee By sending us your money, you buy the service we provide. Calculate the price of your order Type of paper needed:. Pages: words. You will get a personal manager and a discount. Academic level:. These higher protein-level requirements are a consequence of the higher feed efficiency of aquatic animals higher feed conversion ratio [FCR], that is, kg of feed per kg of animal produced. Fish such as salmon have an FCR around 1.
Fish do not use energy to keep warm, eliminating some carbohydrates and fats in the diet, required to provide this energy. This may be offset, though, by the lower land costs and the higher production which can be obtained due to the high level of input control.
Aeration of the water is essential, as fish need a sufficient oxygen level for growth. This is achieved by bubbling, cascade flow, or aqueous oxygen. Clarias spp. The risk of infections by parasites such as fish lice, fungi Saprolegnia spp. However, animal husbandry is a larger and more technologically mature area of human agriculture and has developed better solutions to pathogen problems. Intensive aquaculture has to provide adequate water quality oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, etc. This requirement makes control of the pathogen problem more difficult.
Intensive aquaculture requires tight monitoring and a high level of expertise of the fish farmer. Very-high-intensity recycle aquaculture systems RAS , where all the production parameters are controlled, are being used for high-value species. By recycling water, little is used per unit of production. However, the process has high capital and operating costs. The higher cost structures mean that RAS is economical only for high-value products, such as broodstock for egg production, fingerlings for net pen aquaculture operations, sturgeon production, research animals, and some special niche markets such as live fish.
Raising ornamental coldwater fish goldfish or koi , although theoretically much more profitable due to the higher income per weight of fish produced, has been successfully carried out only in the 21st century. The increased incidences of dangerous viral diseases of koi carp, together with the high value of the fish, has led to initiatives in closed-system koi breeding and growing in a number of countries. Today, a few commercially successful intensive koi-growing facilities are operating in the UK, Germany, and Israel.
Some producers have adapted their intensive systems in an effort to provide consumers with fish that do not carry dormant forms of viruses and diseases. In , juvenile Nile tilapia were given a food containing dried Schizochytrium in place of fish oil.
When compared to a control group raised on regular food, they exhibited higher weight gain and better food-to-growth conversion, plus their flesh was higher in healthy omega-3 fatty acids. Within intensive and extensive aquaculture methods, numerous specific types of fish farms are used; each has benefits and applications unique to its design.
Fish cages are placed in lakes, bayous, ponds, rivers, or oceans to contain and protect fish until they can be harvested. They can be constructed of a wide variety of components. Fish are stocked in cages, artificially fed, and harvested when they reach market size. A few advantages of fish farming with cages are that many types of waters can be used rivers, lakes, filled quarries, etc. Cage farming of fishes in open seas is also gaining in popularity.
Given concerns of disease, poaching, poor water quality, etc. Also, the past occurrences of cage-failures leading to escapes, have raised concern regarding the culture of non-native fish species in dam or open-water cages. On August 22, , there was a massive failure of such cages at a commercial fishery in Washington state in Puget Sound , leading to release of nearly , Atlantic salmon in non-native waters.
This is believed to risk endangering the native Pacific salmon species. Though the cage-industry has made numerous technological advances in cage construction in recent years, the risk of damage and escape due to storms is always a concern. Semi-submersible marine technology is beginning to impact fish farming. In , 1. Recently, copper alloys have become important netting materials in aquaculture. Copper alloys are antimicrobial , that is, they destroy bacteria , viruses , fungi , algae , and other microbes.
The resistance of organism growth on copper alloy nets also provides a cleaner and healthier environment for farmed fish to grow and thrive. Traditional netting involves regular and labor-intensive cleaning. In addition to its antifouling benefits, copper netting has strong structural and corrosion-resistant properties in marine environments. Extensive research, including demonstrations and trials, are being implemented on two other copper alloys: copper-nickel and copper-silicon. Each of these alloy types has an inherent ability to reduce biofouling, cage waste, disease, and the need for antibiotics, while simultaneously maintaining water circulation and oxygen requirements.
Other types of copper alloys are also being considered for research and development in aquaculture operations. In Southeast Asia , the traditional cage farming platform is called kelong. These use irrigation ditches or farm ponds to raise fish. The basic requirement is to have a ditch or pond that retains water, possibly with an above-ground irrigation system many irrigation systems use buried pipes with headers.
Using this method, water allotments can be stored in ponds or ditches, usually lined with bentonite clay. In small systems, the fish are often fed commercial fish food, and their waste products can help fertilize the fields. In larger ponds, the pond grows water plants and algae as fish food. Some of the most successful ponds grow introduced strains of plants, as well as introduced strains of fish.
Control of water quality is crucial. Fertilizing, clarifying, and pH control of the water can increase yields substantially, as long as eutrophication is prevented and oxygen levels stay Boat And Stream Questions Short Tricks high. Yields can be low if the fish grow ill from electrolyte stress. The composite fish culture system is a technology developed in India by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in the s.
In this system, of both local and imported fish, a combination of five or six fish species is used in a single fish pond. These species are selected so that they do not compete for food among them by having different types of food habitats. Fish used in this system include catla and silver carp which are surface feeders, rohu , a column feeder, and mrigal and common carp , which are bottom feeders. Other fish also feed on the excreta of the common carp, and this helps contribute to the efficiency of the system which in optimal conditions produces � kg of fish per hectare per year.
One problem with such composite fish culture is that many of these fish breed only during monsoon. Even if fish are collected from Boats And Streams Aptitude Shortcut Tricks Open the wild, they can be mixed with other species, as well. So, a major problem in fish farming is the lack of availability of good-quality stock.
To overcome this problem, ways have now been worked out to breed these fish in ponds using hormonal stimulation. This has ensured the supply of pure fish stock in desired quantities. One of the largest problems with freshwater pisciculture is that it can use a million gallons of water per acre about 1 m 3 of water per m 2 each year. Extended water purification systems allow for the reuse recycling of local water. The largest-scale pure fish farms use a system derived admittedly much refined from the New Alchemy Institute in the s.
Basically, large plastic fish tanks are placed in a greenhouse. A hydroponic bed is placed near, above or between them. When tilapia are raised in the tanks, they are able to eat algae, which naturally grow in the tanks when the tanks are properly fertilized. The tank water is slowly circulated to the hydroponic beds, where the tilapia waste feeds commercial plant crops. Carefully cultured microorganisms in the hydroponic bed convert ammonia to nitrates , and the plants are fertilized by the nitrates and phosphates.
Other wastes are strained out by the hydroponic media, which double as an aerated pebble-bed filter. This system, properly tuned, produces more edible protein per unit area than any other. A wide variety of plants can grow well in the hydroponic beds. Most growers concentrate on herbs e. The most common customers are restaurant wholesalers. Since the system lives in a greenhouse , it adapts to almost all temperate climates, and may also adapt to tropical climates.
The main Boat And Stream Questions Short Tricks List environmental impact is discharge of water that must be salted to maintain the fishes' electrolyte balance. Current growers use a variety of proprietary tricks to keep fish healthy, reducing their expenses for salt and wastewater discharge permits.
Some veterinary authorities speculate that ultraviolet ozone disinfectant systems widely used for ornamental fish may play a prominent part in keeping the tilapia healthy with recirculated water.
A number of large, well-capitalized ventures in this area have failed. Managing both the biology and markets is complicated. One future development is the combination of integrated recycling systems with urban farming as tried in Sweden by the Greenfish Initiative. This is also called a "flow through system" [21] Trout and other sport fish are often raised from eggs to fry or fingerlings and then trucked to streams and released.
Normally, the fry are raised in long, shallow, concrete tanks, fed with fresh stream water. The fry receive commercial fish food in pellets. While not as efficient as the New Alchemists' method, it is also far simpler and has been used for many years to stock streams with sport fish.
European eel Anguilla anguilla aquaculturalists procure a limited supply of glass eels, juvenile stages of the European eel which swim north from the Sargasso Sea breeding grounds, for their farms. The European eel is threatened with extinction because of the excessive catch of glass eels by Spanish fishermen and overfishing of adult eels in, e. Although European eel larvae can survive for several weeks, the full life cycle has not yet been achieved in captivity.
The issue of feeds in fish farming has been a controversial one. Many cultured fishes tilapia, carp, catfish, many others require no meat or fish products in their diets.
Top-level carnivores most salmon species depend on fish feed of which a portion is usually derived from wild-caught fish anchovies , menhaden , etc. Vegetable-derived proteins have successfully replaced fish meal in feeds for carnivorous fishes, but vegetable-derived oils have not successfully been incorporated into the diets of carnivores.
Research is underway to try to change this, such that even salmon and other carnivores could be successfully fed with vegetable products. The F3 Challenge Fish-Free Feed Challenge , [24] as explained by a report from Wired in February , "is a race to sell , metric tons of fish food, without the fish.
Earlier this month, start-ups from places like Pakistan, China, and Belgium joined their American competition at the Google headquarters in Mountain View, California, showing off feed made from seaweed extracts, yeast , and algae grown in bioreactors. Between and , Aldrin et al. Functional feeds are defined as high-quality feeds that beyond purposes of nutrition, they are formulated with health promoting features that could be beneficial in supporting disease resistance, such as CMS.
In choosing a clinical nutrition approach using functional feeds could, potentially move away from chemotherapeutic and antibiotic treatments, which could lower the costs of disease treatment and management in fish farms. Results demonstrated a significant difference in the immune and inflammatory responses and pathology in heart tissue as the fish were infected with PMCV.
Fish fed with functional feeds with low lipid content demonstrated milder and delayed inflammatory response and therefore, less severe heart lesions at earlier and later stages after have PMCV infection. Secondly, farmed fish are kept in concentrations never seen in the wild e. However, fish tend also to be animals that aggregate into large schools at high density.
Most successful aquaculture species are schooling species, which do not have social problems at high density. Stressing the animals is not desirable, but the concept of and measurement of stress must be viewed from the perspective of the animal using the scientific method.
Sea lice , particularly Lepeophtheirus salmonis and various Caligus species, including C. A meta-analysis of available data shows that salmon farming reduces the survival of associated wild salmon populations.
This relationship has been shown to hold for Atlantic, steelhead, pink, chum, and coho salmon. Diseases and parasites are the most commonly cited reasons for such decreases. Some species of sea lice have been noted to target farmed coho and Atlantic salmon.
One place that has garnered international media attention is British Columbia's Broughton Archipelago. There, juvenile wild salmon must "run a gauntlet" of large fish farms located off-shore near river outlets before making their way to sea. Use of antibiotics in food production is thought to increase the prevalence of antibiotic resistance in human diseases. However, being in an ocean environment, the transfer of disease organisms from the wild fish to the aquaculture fish is an ever-present risk.
The large number of fish kept long-term in a single location contributes to habitat destruction of the nearby areas. Aquaculture not only impact the fish on the farm, but it also involves environmental interactions with other species, which in return are attracted or repelled by the farms.
Some of these fauna may be attracted or demonstrate repulsion. The interactions that wild organisms have with aquaculture may have implications on the management of fisheries species and the ecosystem in relation to how the fish farms are structured and organized. However, if the farm is correctly placed in an area with a strong current, the 'pollutants' are flushed out of the area fairly quickly.
Not only does this help with the pollution problem, but water with a stronger current also aids in overall fish growth. Concern remains that resultant bacterial growth strips the water of oxygen, reducing or killing off the local marine life. Once an area has been so contaminated, the fish farms are moved to new, uncontaminated areas.
This practice has angered nearby fishermen. Other potential problems faced by aquaculturists are the obtaining of various permits and water-use rights, profitability, concerns about invasive species and genetic engineering depending on what species are involved, and interaction with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. In regards to genetically modified, farmed salmon, concern has been raised over their proven reproductive advantage and how it could potentially decimate local fish populations, if released into the wild.
Biologist Rick Howard [53] did a controlled laboratory study where wild fish and GMO fish were allowed to breed.
The concerns and critiques of cultivating this GMO fish in aquaculture are that the fish will escape and interact with other fish ultimately leading to the reproduction with other fishes.
However, the FDA, has determined that while net pens would not be the most appropriate to prevent escapes, that raising the salmon in Panama waters would result effective in the prevention of escape because the water conditions there would fail to support long-term survival of the salmon in the case that they escaped.
This way concerns on reproducing with other fishes would be out of the question. The colorant used to make pen-raised salmon appear rosy like the wild fish has been linked with retinal problems in humans. In , Alaska passed legislation requiring that any genetically altered fish sold in the state be labeled.
Concerns continue over the labeling of salmon as farmed or wild-caught, as well as about the humane treatment of farmed fish.
The Marine Stewardship Council has established an Eco label to distinguish between farmed and wild-caught salmon, [59] while the RSPCA has established the Freedom Food label to indicate humane treatment of farmed salmon, as well as other food products.
An alternative to outdoor open ocean cage aquaculture, is through the use of a recirculating aquaculture system RAS. A RAS is a series of culture tanks and filters where water is continuously recycled and monitored to keep optimal conditions year round. To prevent the deterioration of water quality, the water is treated mechanically through the removal of particulate matter and biologically through the conversion of harmful accumulated chemicals into nontoxic ones.
Other treatments such as ultraviolet sterilization, ozonation, and oxygen injection are also used to maintain optimal water quality. Through this system, many of the environmental drawbacks of aquaculture are minimized including escaped fish, water usage, and the introduction of pollutants. The practices also increased feed-use efficiency growth by providing optimum water quality.
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