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Crossing a Very Big Sea In a Very Small Boat | WIRED

T he weather forecast for December 9,promised clear blue skies, light winds, and a calm sea, perfect for my start of rowing from El Hierro, a rocky island miles off the African coast and the smallest of the Canary Islands. Family and friends had come to cfossing me off on my first solo adventure, rowing singlehanded, without stopovers crossijg without assistance from the Canaries to the Caribbean island of Martinique, a distance of some 5, kilometers.

I am a retired military small boats crossing the atlantic 20, now 51 years old, and in January I had lost three very close friends, soldiers killed in the same military combat. Losing them had left a lasting mark deep inside me; the sadness of their families was heartbreaking to witness.

I wanted to honor them and all soldiers who had died in combat. I felt compelled to raise money for military widows and orphans, boatd so to do that, I decided to find sponsors and donors who would put their support behind a great personal challenge. I gave atoantic 18 small boats crossing the atlantic 20 for training, planning, and preparations, while exploring all the available avenues.

Fundraising was my first priority, for both the crossing and the cause. Sailing was something I enjoyed, but rowing was new territory�I small boats crossing the atlantic 20 only been on a few small kayak outings during my military career.

I acquired a boat, and it was a bonus that it had already proved itself seaworthy. Made of plywood and covered bkats epoxy and small boats crossing the atlantic 20, the boat had made four crossings from Dakar in Africa to Martinique, the first smsll and the last in The basic features were perfect.

Veronique, here applying the first coat of white paint on the handrails, painted all of the wooden elements on RKKD. We were smsll that the local town council allowed us to refurbish the boat in a spacious shed not far from home.

He was crosssing, the basics were there, but the boat needed a complete small boats crossing the atlantic 20. It had to be entirely stripped before any replacements could be made or rebuilding could take place. Renovation took place at my home in Toulouse, in southwestern France, with four of us working a total of 2, hours in our spare time. Doing the repairs ourselves meant more funds for the cause, and besides, it allowed me to better know my future oceanic home.

The first thing we did was to remove the entire interior, then thoroughly repaired all the cracks and holes of the hull. We continued with extensive work on the rudder and deck before tacking the electrical system installation. We installed two boafs for storing the electricity from the solar panel; the desalinator, one of my most precious resources on the boat, would run off the batteries.

I decided against an autopilot; it would have consumed too much electricity. As we were loading the five plastic containers filled with water, it was essential to stow them correctly to get the right boat boata O n embarkation day, my support team carried out their tasks rigorously, making last-minute preparations, checking equipment, and loading food supplies. Aware that the smallest technical problem could have enormous consequences, we made sure that all the electrical and safety systems and their backups were ready.

RKKD was ready. My singlehanded shakedown run in the unpredictable stretch of Mediterranean Sea between Monaco and Corsica had allowed me to make the final adjustments and improvements. My router, Eric Dupuy, understandably, wanted to check our tge telephone system and back it up yet. He would be my eyes, atkantic ears, my only link at sea monitoring my progress and providing weather reports and routing advice at least once atlantix day.

Although I had a desalinator, I also included 10 gallons of drinking water and three pairs of oars for security. Fully loaded, RKKD weighed 2, lbs. In the last few minutes before departure, I had verified my checklist and did some last-minute tweaking to have my load balanced and evenly distributed. Everyone appeared super calm, but I could hear my heart beating. With my adrenalin running alongside inevitable apprehension, I picked up xrossing oars and faced the deep, mysterious Atlantic.

My body adjusted to the physical demands on the small boats crossing the atlantic 20 day, thanks to my daily rowing small boats crossing the atlantic 20 before setting off. I could small boats crossing the atlantic 20 row four hours nonstop, have a break for 10 minutes, then do another four hours.

All in all, I was pleased; I was right where I wanted to be with the tradewinds and their currents in my favor. I would sometimes have about 40 mahi-mahi following me. During the day, they were multicolored and silvery, but at night they aflantic almost white, and looked like ghosts.

However, I got caught up in plastic pollution that first week, which was disappointing. A piece of plastic had got boars up tge the rudder.

As if to ccrossing up for this human negligence, I had a surprise visit, one that I had been anticipating, yet it came as a surprise.

They appeared first astern, and then in a flash they were both port and starboard, popping up from nowhere, leaping close enough to see their unwavering, impish smiles. They cheered me up so much that I atlanntic to atlsntic rowing to watch. In seventh heaven for a good 10 minutes, I watched fascinated as at least 20 of these fabulous creatures leaped and danced.

My sleeping quarters were a bit like a large tube with little headroom. The yellow foam pads kept me from hurting my head too. I was now sleeping mostly in a fetal position, with my back and knees leaning against the hull. Living quarters small boats crossing the atlantic 20 small and tight, so I had to be highly organized, putting things boat where they belonged so they would be easy to find in an emergency.

Listening to music on my iPod became a regular pastime at any time of the day, from rock to pop, jazz, and even a bit of classical music.

Hearing words of encouragement, prerecorded messages from friends, mixed in with the songs gave me that boost I needed. These little luxuries had a massive effect on my morale, not only as I crossin eating them but long. Being reminded of her pulled me out of the dull grind of my daily routine. I agreed. Thankful and relieved crpssing my first brush with bad weather, I wished everyone a Happy Christmas.

Little did I know there was more foul weather to come. Small boats crossing the atlantic 20 y first episode of lousy weather ssmall on Christmas Eve, and it slowed me down for two days. I was caught in a storm and pushed backward by an adverse current.

It took me two days of rowing to make up the lost ground. I recuperated for two days, then got frossing again by another bout of bad weather, which lasted four miserable days. Eric had warned me that Boatts was in for a rough time with winds crpssing 20 to 25 knots, so I was prepared for it.

I rowed harder than usual, fighting not to get pushed backward too. By the end tue the day, however, weather conditions had noticeably deteriorated with more swells and a menacing horizon. The following morning, things got a bit more stressful.

Waves hit the small boats crossing the atlantic 20, rocking me from cdossing to starboard and back tbe port [as I rowed], and drenching me. I summoned all my courage and gripped the oars as if my life depended voats it. Without a second oarsman or an autopilot to control the rudder, it was up to me to keep the bow straight and maintain the right course. Eric had forwarded a boahs saying I looked like Robinson Crusoe.

This selfie proved him right, but shaving was the last thing on my mind. Navigating 12 to 14 hours a day took a toll on my body. The scene was surreal; waves were roaring with anger and hitting my face small boats crossing the atlantic 20 I did my best to keep myself and my boat upright. God, I was having a bad time. I decided to use the sea anchor to help stabilize the movement small boats crossing the atlantic 20 RKKD and to prevent us from going backward.

Dejected, heavy-hearted, and alone under the gray skies and menacing seas, I had to admit I was lonely. I was begging for a change in the weather conditions. I thought of my father, who has always taught me the true meaning of commitment, excellence, and self-sacrifice. I thought of my deceased military friends, their wives and children now without them and who needed comforting.

Stop blowing so hard! I have a mission! A rain storm that occurred while I was rowing allowed me to have a fresh rain-water atlanyic. With tropical storms, I got a good smxll soaking for an hour or so, then dried off in bright sunshine.

On the third day, realizing I had little choice but to stay calm, I stopped yelling. My only option was to continue fighting. I was alone, prey to strong winds, losing mileage every day, and doomed to drift.

I thought of Tom Hanks in Castawayone of my favorite movies, where he crossiing stranded on an inhabited island, and somehow, I found my courage.

But four days of constant bad weather had left me weary. I had gone backward, and I had added nm to the distance I had to row. My sore shoulders, glutes, and quads were stiff from exertion; I was physically exhausted and mentally drained. On the last day of the year, waves of nostalgia washed over me and added to my bleak mood. I had clocked 1, miles, but I still had 1, more to go.

I tried to be rational, and told myself things could small boats crossing the atlantic 20 been worse�the boat could have capsized. I had painted her bright fluorescent orange�and the sponsor decals added to the hull were deliberately small so the boat would atantic visible to any rescue air mission.

There was no lighting inside RKKD. Missing Veronique and the comforts of home hurt like hell that night. I looked at the white-paint print of her hand on the orange cabin wall: I had pressed her hand there as we were painting, knowing it would help in moments like. Remembering how she laughed and put her hand on my heart that day gave me the courage to wish a Happy New Year to all my friends, family, sponsors, and donors on my satellite phone call to Eric.

J ust as quickly as the bad weather had started, the wind change I longed for and prayed for finally arrived. The sea, now released from the cycle of turbulence, seemed to breathe a sigh of relief. And so did I.

Conclusion:

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In short, it is quintessential Spain. The beaches of the Costa del Sol are legendary. As one component of the interconnected World Ocean , it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean , to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica.

The oldest known mentions of an "Atlantic" sea come from Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC Sch. The term " Aethiopian Ocean ", derived from Ancient Ethiopia , was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the midth century.

The Pond is a term often used by British and American speakers in reference to the Northern Atlantic Ocean , as a form of meiosis , or sarcastic understatement. The International Hydrographic Organization IHO defined the limits of the oceans and seas in , [17] but some of these definitions have been revised since then and some are not used by various authorities, institutions, and countries, see for example the CIA World Factbook.

Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas vary. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe: the Strait of Gibraltar where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea �one of its marginal seas �and, in turn, the Black Sea , both of which also touch upon Asia and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs and seas.

Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of ,, km 2 41,, sq mi or Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,, km 2 31,, sq mi and has a volume of ,, km 3 73,, cu mi. The North Atlantic covers 41,, km 2 16,, sq mi Top large seas: [21] [22] [23]. The MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges.

The MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other.

The MAR rises 2�3 km 1. In the s, the Challenger expedition discovered parts of what is now known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, or:. An elevated ridge rising to an average height of about 1, fathoms [3, m; 11, ft] below the surface traverses the basins of the North and South Atlantic in a meridianal direction from Cape Farewell, probably its far south at least as Gough Island, following roughly the outlines of the coasts of the Old and the New Worlds.

The remainder of the ridge was discovered in the s by the German Meteor expedition using echo-sounding equipment. Most of the MAR runs under water but where it reaches the surfaces it has produced volcanic islands. Continental shelves in the Atlantic are wide off Newfoundland, southernmost South America, and north-eastern Europe.

In the western Atlantic carbonate platforms dominate large areas, for example, the Blake Plateau and Bermuda Rise. The Atlantic is surrounded by passive margins except at a few locations where active margins form deep trenches : the Puerto Rico Trench 8, m or 27, ft maximum depth in the western Atlantic and South Sandwich Trench 8, m or 27, ft in the South Atlantic.

There are numerous submarine canyons off north-eastern North America, western Europe, and north-western Africa. Some of these canyons extend along the continental rises and farther into the abyssal plains as deep-sea channels. In a historic moment in cartography and oceanography occurred. This involved little guesswork because the idea of sonar is straightforward with pulses being sent from the vessel, which bounce off the ocean floor, then return to the vessel.

The Laurentian Abyss is found off the eastern coast of Canada. Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. The Coriolis effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction, whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur every 24 lunar hours.

On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean; surface water salinity in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand 3. Evaporation, precipitation, river inflow and sea ice melting influence surface salinity values.

Although the lowest salinity values are just north of the equator because of heavy tropical rainfall , in general, the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers enter. The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper water masses with distinct temperature and salinity. North Atlantic Central Water can be divided into the Eastern and Western North Atlantic central Water since the western part is strongly affected by the Gulf Stream and therefore the upper layer is closer to underlying fresher subpolar intermediate water.

The eastern water is saltier because of its proximity to Mediterranean Water. There are five intermediate waters: four low-salinity waters formed at subpolar latitudes and one high-salinity formed through evaporation. These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins. The wide range of salinities in the North Atlantic is caused by the asymmetry of the northern subtropical gyre and the large number of contributions from a wide range of sources: Labrador Sea, Norwegian-Greenland Sea, Mediterranean, and South Atlantic Intermediate Water.

Changes in the formation of NADW have been linked to global climate changes in the past. Since man-made substances were introduced into the environment, the path of the NADW can be traced throughout its course by measuring tritium and radiocarbon from nuclear weapon tests in the s and CFCs. The clockwise warm-water North Atlantic Gyre occupies the northern Atlantic, and the counter-clockwise warm-water South Atlantic Gyre appears in the southern Atlantic.

In the North Atlantic, surface circulation is dominated by three inter-connected currents: the Gulf Stream which flows north-east from the North American coast at Cape Hatteras ; the North Atlantic Current , a branch of the Gulf Stream which flows northward from the Grand Banks ; and the Subpolar Front , an extension of the North Atlantic Current, a wide, vaguely defined region separating the subtropical gyre from the subpolar gyre.

This system of currents transport warm water into the North Atlantic, without which temperatures in the North Atlantic and Europe would plunge dramatically. It is governed by ocean currents from marginal seas and regional topography, rather than being steered by wind, both in the deep ocean and at sea level.

Its eastern portion includes eddying branches of the North Atlantic Current which transport warm, saline waters from the subtropics to the north-eastern Atlantic. There this water is cooled during winter and forms return currents that merge along the eastern continental slope of Greenland where they form an intense 40�50 Sv current which flows around the continental margins of the Labrador Sea.

The NADW, in its turn, feeds the meridional overturning circulation MOC , the northward heat transport of which is threatened by anthropogenic climate change. Large variations in the subpolar gyre on a decade-century scale, associated with the North Atlantic oscillation , are especially pronounced in Labrador Sea Water , the upper layers of the MOC. The South Atlantic is dominated by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre.

Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean. On the African east coast, the small cyclonic Angola Gyre lies embedded in the large subtropical gyre. The residence time of the gyre is 4.

North Atlantic Deep Water flows southward below the thermocline of the subtropical gyre. This population of seaweed probably originated from Tertiary ancestors on the European shores of the former Tethys Ocean and has, if so, maintained itself by vegetative growth , floating in the ocean for millions of years.

Other species endemic to the Sargasso Sea include the sargassum fish , a predator with algae-like appendages which hovers motionless among the Sargassum. Fossils of similar fishes have been found in fossil bays of the former Tethys Ocean, in what is now the Carpathian region, that were similar to the Sargasso Sea.

It is possible that the population in the Sargasso Sea migrated to the Atlantic as the Tethys closed at the end of the Miocene around 17 Ma.

The fossils found in the Carpathians in the midth century often called the "quasi-Sargasso assemblage", finally showed that this assemblage originated in the Carpathian Basin from where it migrated over Sicily to the Central Atlantic where it evolved into modern species of the Sargasso Sea.

The location of the spawning ground for European eels remained unknown for decades. In the early 19th century it was discovered that the southern Sargasso Sea is the spawning ground for both the European and American eel and that the former migrate more than 5, km 3, mi and the latter 2, km 1, mi. Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates.

Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator.

The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence the climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas. The Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift is thought to have at least some influence on climate. For example, the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline of southeastern North America, keeping it warmer in winter along the coast than inland areas.

The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from occurring on the Florida Peninsula. In the higher latitudes, the North Atlantic Drift, warms the atmosphere over the oceans, keeping the British Isles and north-western Europe mild and cloudy, and not severely cold in winter like other locations at the same high latitude. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada the Grand Banks of Newfoundland area and Africa's north-western coast.

In general, winds transport moisture and air over land areas. Every winter, the Icelandic Low produces frequent storms. Icebergs are common from early February to the end of July across the shipping lanes near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. The ice season is longer in the polar regions, but there is little shipping in those areas. Hurricanes are a hazard in the western parts of the North Atlantic during the summer and autumn.

Due to a consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone , South Atlantic tropical cyclones are rare. The Atlantic Ocean is underlain mostly by dense mafic oceanic crust made up of basalt and gabbro and overlain by fine clay, silt and siliceous ooze on the abyssal plain.

The continental margins and continental shelf mark lower density, but greater thickness felsic continental rock that often much older than that of the seafloor.

The oldest oceanic crust in the Atlantic is up to million years and situated off the west coast of Africa and east coast of North America, or on either side of the South Atlantic. In many places, the continental shelf and continental slope are covered in thick sedimentary layers. For instance, on the North American side of the ocean, large carbonate deposits formed in warm shallow waters such as Florida and the Bahamas, while coarse river outwash sands and silt are common in shallow shelf areas like the Georges Bank.

Coarse sand, boulders, and rocks were transported into some areas, such as off the coast of Nova Scotia or the Gulf of Maine during the Pleistocene ice ages.

This period also saw the first stages of the uplift of the Atlas Mountains. The exact timing is controversial with estimates ranging from to Ma. The opening of the Atlantic Ocean coincided with the initial break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea , both of which were initiated by the eruption of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province CAMP , one of the most extensive and voluminous large igneous provinces in Earth's history associated with the Triassic�Jurassic extinction event , one of Earth's major extinction events.

The extent of the volcanism has been estimated to 4. The formation of the isthmus resulted in the migration and extinction of many land-living animals, known as the Great American Interchange , but the closure of the seaway resulted in a "Great American Schism" as it affected ocean currents, salinity, and temperatures in both the Atlantic and Pacific.

Marine organisms on both sides of the isthmus became isolated and either diverged or went extinct. Geologically, the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited to the south by two conjugate margins, Newfoundland and Iberia, and to the north by the Arctic Eurasian Basin. Active and inactive spreading systems in this area are marked by the interaction with the Iceland hotspot.

Seafloor spreading led to the extension of the crust and formations of troughs and sedimentary basins. The Rockall Trough opened between and 84 million years ago although along the rift failed along with one leading into the Bay of Biscay.

Spreading began opening the Labrador Sea around 61 million years ago, continuing until 36 million years ago. Geologists distinguish two magmatic phases. One from 62 to 58 million years ago predates the separation of Greenland from northern Europe while the second from 56 to 52 million years ago happened as the separation occurred.

Iceland began to form 62 million years ago due to a particularly concentrated mantle plume. Large quantities of basalt erupted at this time period are found on Baffin Island, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Scotland, with ash falls in Western Europe acting as a stratigraphic marker. For instance, in spite of 7 km thick basalt, Gunnbjorn Field in East Greenland is the highest point on the island, elevated enough that it exposes older Mesozoic sedimentary rocks at its base, similar to old lava fields above sedimentary rocks in the uplifted Hebrides of western Scotland.

The apparent fit between the coastlines of the two continents was noted on the first maps that included the South Atlantic and it was also the subject of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstructions in It covered an area of 1. Dyke swarms in Brazil, Angola, eastern Paraguay, and Namibia, however, suggest the LIP originally covered a much larger area and also indicate failed rifts in all these areas.

Associated offshore basaltic flows reach as far south as the Falkland Islands and South Africa. Traces of magmatism in both offshore and onshore basins in the central and southern segments have been dated to �49 Ma with two peaks between and Ma and 90�60 Ma. In the Falkland segment rifting began with dextral movements between the Patagonia and Colorado sub-plates between the Early Jurassic Ma and the Early Cretaceous Around Ma sea-floor spreading propagated northward into the southern segment.

In the central segment rifting started to break Africa in two by opening the Benue Trough around Ma. Rifting in the central segment, however, coincided with the Cretaceous Normal Superchron also known as the Cretaceous quiet period , a 40 Ma period without magnetic reversals, which makes it difficult to date sea-floor spreading in this segment.

The equatorial segment is the last phase of the break-up, but, because it is located on the Equator, magnetic anomalies cannot be used for dating. Various estimates date the propagation of sea-floor spreading in this segment to the period �96 Ma.

This final stage, nevertheless, coincided with or resulted in the end of continental extension in Africa. About 50 Ma the opening of the Drake Passage resulted from a change in the motions and separation rate of the South American and Antarctic plates.

First small ocean basins opened and a shallow gateway appeared during the Middle Eocene. An embryonic subduction margin is potentially developing west of Gibraltar. The Gibraltar Arc in the western Mediterranean is migrating westward into the Central Atlantic where it joins the converging African and Eurasian plates.

Together these three tectonic forces are slowly developing into a new subduction system in the eastern Atlantic Basin. Meanwhile, the Scotia Arc and Caribbean Plate in the western Atlantic Basin are eastward-propagating subduction systems that might, together with the Gibraltar system, represent the beginning of the closure of the Atlantic Ocean and the final stage of the Atlantic Wilson cycle. Humans evolved in Africa; first by diverging from other apes around 7 mya; then developing stone tools around 2.

During the latest glacial stages, the now-submerged plains of the Agulhas Bank were exposed above sea level, extending the South African coastline farther south by hundreds of kilometers. A small population of modern humans � probably fewer than a thousand reproducing individuals � survived glacial maxima by exploring the high diversity offered by these Palaeo-Agulhas plains.

The GCFR is delimited to the north by the Cape Fold Belt and the limited space south of it resulted in the development of social networks out of which complex Stone Age technologies emerged. Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA studies indicate that 80�60, years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa, derived from a single, small population, coincided with the emergence of behavioral complexity and the rapid MIS 5�4 environmental changes.

This group of people not only expanded over the whole of Africa, but also started to disperse out of Africa into Asia, Europe, and Australasia around 65, years ago and quickly replaced the archaic humans in these regions. Following rapid climate changes at the end of the LGM this region was repopulated by Magdalenian culture. Other hunter-gatherers followed in waves interrupted by large-scale hazards such as the Laacher See volcanic eruption, the inundation of Doggerland now the North Sea , and the formation of the Baltic Sea.

This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than those of later generations.

While their middens resemble 12�11 kya-old Late Stone Age LSA middens found on every inhabited continent, the 50�45 kya-old Enkapune Ya Muto in Kenya probably represents the oldest traces of the first modern humans to disperse out of Africa. The same development can be seen in Europe.

In contrast, 8�7 kya-old shell middens in Portugal, Denmark, and Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris and artefacts. This intensification in the exploitation of marine resources has been described as accompanied by new technologies � such as boats, harpoons, and fish-hooks � because many caves found in the Mediterranean and on the European Atlantic coast have increased quantities of marine shells in their upper levels and reduced quantities in their lower.

The earliest exploitation, however, took place on the now submerged shelves, and most settlements now excavated were then located several kilometers from these shelves. The reduced quantities of shells in the lower levels can represent the few shells that were exported inland. In late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of the Americas by which Clovis hunters migrated into North America around 13, years ago in a single wave through an ice-free corridor in the ice sheet and "spread southward explosively, briefly attaining a density sufficiently large to overkill much of their prey.

Contradictory data from archaeology and genetics will most likely deliver future hypotheses that will, eventually, confirm each other. The Norse settlement of the Faroe Islands and Iceland began during the 9th and 10th centuries. A settlement on Greenland was established before CE, but contact with it was lost in and it was finally abandoned during the early Little Ice Age. This setback was caused by a range of factors: an unsustainable economy resulted in erosion and denudation, while conflicts with the local Inuit resulted in the failure to adapt their Arctic technologies; a colder climate resulted in starvation, and the colony got economically marginalized as the Great Plague and Barbary pirates harvested its victims on Iceland in the 15th century.

Christopher Columbus reached the Americas in under Spanish flag. Following these explorations, Spain and Portugal quickly conquered and colonized large territories in the New World and forced the Amerindian population into slavery in order to explore the vast quantities of silver and gold they found.

Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade in order to keep other European nations out, but conflicting interests nevertheless led to a series of Spanish-Portuguese wars. A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories into Spanish and Portuguese sectors while keeping other colonial powers away.

England, France, and the Dutch Republic enviously watched the Spanish and Portuguese wealth grow and allied themselves with pirates such as Henry Mainwaring and Alexandre Exquemelin.

They could explore the convoys leaving the Americas because prevailing winds and currents made the transport of heavy metals slow and predictable. In the colonies of the Americas, depredation, smallpox and others diseases, and slavery quickly reduced the indigenous population of the Americas to the extent that the Atlantic slave trade had to be introduced to replace them � a trade that became the norm and an integral part of the colonization.

Between the 15th century and , when Brazil became the last part of the Americas to end the slave trade, an estimated ten million Africans were exported as slaves, most of them destined for agricultural labour. The slave trade was officially abolished in the British Empire and the United States in , and slavery itself was abolished in the British Empire in and in the United States in after the Civil War. For European countries with direct access to the Atlantic including Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain � was a period of sustained growth during which these countries grew richer than those in Eastern Europe and Asia.

Colonialism evolved as part of the Trans-Atlantic trade, but this trade also strengthened the position of merchant groups at the expense of monarchs. Growth was more rapid in non-absolutist countries, such as Britain and the Netherlands, and more limited in absolutist monarchies , such as Portugal, Spain, and France, where profit mostly or exclusively benefited the monarchy and its allies.

By end of the 17th century, the volume of the Trans-Atlantic trade had surpassed that of the Mediterranean trade. The Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries.

Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves. The Atlantic harbors petroleum and gas fields, fish, marine mammals seals and whales , sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits , polymetallic nodules , and precious stones. Currently, there is no cost-effective way to mine or extract gold from the ocean to make a profit.

Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, marine debris , and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea. The shelves of the Atlantic hosts one of the world's richest fishing resources.

The third group, "continuously increasing trend since ", is only found in the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific. In the North-East Atlantic total catches decreased between the mids and the s and reached 8.

Blue whiting reached a 2. Recovery plans for cod, sole, and plaice have reduced mortality in these species. Arctic cod reached its lowest levels in the s�s but is now recovered. Arctic saithe and haddock are considered fully fished; Sand eel is overfished as was capelin which has now recovered to fully fished. Limited data makes the state of redfishes and deep-water species difficult to assess but most likely they remain vulnerable to overfishing.

Stocks of northern shrimp and Norwegian lobster are in good condition. In the North-West Atlantic landings have decreased from 4. During the 21st century some species have shown weak signs of recovery, including Greenland halibut , yellowtail flounder , Atlantic halibut , haddock , spiny dogfish , while other stocks shown no such signs, including cod, witch flounder , and redfish. Stocks of invertebrates, in contrast, remain at record levels of abundance.

In John Cabot became the first Western European since the Vikings to explore mainland North America and one of his major discoveries was the abundant resources of Atlantic cod off Newfoundland.

Referred to as "Newfoundland Currency" this discovery yielded some million tons of fish over five centuries. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries new fisheries started to exploit haddock , mackerel , and lobster.

From the s to the s the introduction of European and Asian distant-water fleets in the area dramatically increased the fishing capacity and the number of exploited species. It also expanded the exploited areas from near-shore to the open sea and to great depths to include deep-water species such as redfish , Greenland halibut , witch flounder, and grenadiers.

Overfishing in the area was recognised as early as the s but, because this was occurring on international waters , it took until the late s before any attempts to regulate was made.

In the early s, this finally resulted in the collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery. The population of a number of deep-sea fishes also collapsed in the process, including American plaice , redfish, and Greenland halibut, together with flounder and grenadier.

Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished or overfished, with sardines south of Cape Bojador the notable exception. Almost half of the stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Total catches have been fluctuating since the s; reaching 3. In the Western Central Atlantic, catches have been decreasing since and reached 1.

The most important species in the area, Gulf menhaden , reached a million tons in the mids but only half a million tons in and is now considered fully fished. Round sardinella was an important species in the s but is now considered overfished. Groupers and snappers are overfished and northern brown shrimp and American cupped oyster are considered fully fished approaching overfished.

In the South-East Atlantic catches have decreased from 3. Horse mackerel and hake are the most important species, together representing almost half of the landings. Off South Africa and Namibia deep-water hake and shallow-water Cape hake have recovered to sustainable levels since regulations were introduced in and the states of Southern African pilchard and anchovy have improved to fully fished in In the South-West Atlantic, a peak was reached in the mids and catches now fluctuate between 1.

The most important species, the Argentine shortfin squid , which reached half a million tons in or half the peak value, is considered fully fished to overfished. Another important species was the Brazilian sardinella , with a production of , tons in it is now considered overfished. Half the stocks in this area are being fished at unsustainable levels: Whitehead's round herring has not yet reached fully fished but Cunene horse mackerel is overfished.

The sea snail perlemoen abalone is targeted by illegal fishing and remain overfished. Endangered marine species include the manatee , seals , sea lions, turtles, and whales. Drift net fishing can kill dolphins, albatrosses and other seabirds petrels , auks , hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes.

Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemicals as well as livestock and human waste.

The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone. Marine debris , which is also known as marine litter, describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. The North Atlantic garbage patch is estimated to be hundreds of kilometers across in size.

Other pollution concerns include agricultural and municipal waste. For their own safety, the crew jettisoned two nuclear bombs, which were never recovered. North Atlantic hurricane activity has increased over past decades because of increased sea surface temperature SST at tropical latitudes, changes that can be attributed to either the natural Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation AMO or to anthropogenic climate change.

Furthermore, it is clear from statistical analyses of annual tropical cyclones that these changes do not display multidecadal cyclicity.

The ocean mixed layer plays an important role in heat storage over seasonal and decadal time-scales, whereas deeper layers are affected over millennia and have a heat capacity about 50 times that of the mixed layer. This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change but it also results in thermal expansion of the oceans which contributes to sea level rise. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Redirected from Atlantic.

Ocean between Europe, Africa and the Americas. For other uses, see Atlantic disambiguation , North Atlantic disambiguation , South Atlantic disambiguation , and Atlantic Basin disambiguation.

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