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The maritime fur trade was a ship-based fur trade system that focused on acquiring furs of sea otters and other animals from the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and natives of Alaska. The furs were mostly sold in China in exchange for tea, silks, porcelain, and other Chinese goods, which were then sold in Europe and the United States.
The maritime fur trade was pioneered by Russians, working east from Kamchatka along the Aleutian Islands to the southern coast of Alaska.
British and Americans entered during the s, focusing on what is now the coast of British Columbia. The trade boomed around the beginning of the 19th century. A long period of decline began in the s. As the sea otter population was depleted, the maritime fur trade diversified and transformed, tapping new markets and commodities, while continuing to focus on the Northwest Coast and China. It lasted until the middle to late 19th century.
Russians controlled most of the coast of what is now Alaska during the entire era. The coast south of Alaska endured fierce competition between, and among, British and American trading vessels.
The British were the first to operate in the southern sector, but were unable to compete against the Americans, who dominated from the s to the s.
The British Hudson's Bay Company entered the coast trade in the s with the intention of driving the Americans away. This was accomplished by about The term "maritime fur trade" was coined by historians to distinguish the coastal, ship-based fur trade from the continental, land-based fur trade of, for example, the North West Company and American Fur Company.
Historically, the maritime fur trade was not known by that name, rather it was usually called the "North West Coast trade" or "North West Trade". The term "North West" was rarely spelled as the single word "Northwest", as is common today. The maritime fur trade brought the Pacific Northwest coast into a vast, new international trade network, centered on the north Pacific Ocean, global in scope, and based on capitalism , but not, for the most part, on colonialism.
A triangular trade network emerged linking the Pacific Northwest coast, China, the Hawaiian Islands only recently discovered by the Western world , Britain, and the United States especially New England. The trade had a major effect on the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest coast, especially the Aleut , Sugpiaq , Tlingit , Haida , Nuu-chah-nulth , and Chinook peoples. A rapid increase of wealth occurred among the Northwest Coast natives, along with increased warfare, potlatching , slaving, and depopulation due to epidemic disease.
However, the indigenous culture was not overwhelmed by rapid change, but actually flourished. For instance, the importance of totems and traditional nobility crests increased, [2] and the Chinook Jargon , which remains a distinctive aspect of Pacific Northwest culture, was developed during this era.
Native Hawaiian society was similarly affected by the sudden influx of Western wealth and technology, as well as epidemic diseases. The trade's effect on China and Europe was minimal, but for New England, the maritime fur trade and the significant profits it made helped revitalize the region, contributing to its transformation from an agrarian to an industrial society.
The wealth generated by the maritime fur trade was invested in industrial development, especially textile manufacturing. The most profitable furs were those of sea otters , especially the northern sea otter, Enhydra lutris kenyoni , which inhabited the coastal waters between the Columbia River in the south to the Aleutian Islands in the north. Sea otters possess a thicker fur than any other mammal, and the sea otter's habit of grooming their coat prevents molting.
The reason for their exploitation was due to this 'dark [thick] and silver tipped fur'. The species stayed approximately within the arc of the Northern Pacific until the pressure of the maritime trade forced them to move north. The start of their decline with the first Russian expeditions in this region. Aleut hunters were the providers of the skins to the Russians; the former became 'the main purveyor of prime otter skins to Russian traders and American adventurers'.
Sea otters are 'slow breeders, only one sometimes two pups [are] being born at a time', which does not help the population when being pursued. The Chinese sought this mammal's fur due to its great commercial value and its 'prime coat' all year long.
The pelt was used by the wealthy Chinese as clothing decoration robe trimming and the Russians used it as an ornamental piece. The other furs that were sent to Europe and America were changed to 'coat collars or hats'.
After the northern sea otter was hunted to local extinction , maritime fur traders shifted to California until the southern sea otter was likewise nearly extinct. Furs from Russian America were mostly sold to China via the Mongolian trading town of Kyakhta , which had been opened to Russian trade by the Treaty of Kyakhta.
The Pacific Northwest was one of the last significant nonpolar regions in the world to be explored by Europeans. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a number of empires and commercial systems converged upon the Northwest Coast, by sea as well as by land across the continent.
Kodiak Island was discovered in by Stepan Glotov. Two ships sailed from Kamchatka to the Alaska Peninsula for the purpose of assessing the existing Russian activity and the possibilities of future development. The Spanish government, already concerned about Russian activity in Alaska, decided to colonize Alta California and sent exploratory voyages to Alaska to assess the threat and strengthen Spanish claims of sovereignty on coast north of Mexico. By , presidios had been established at San Diego , Monterey , San Francisco and Santa Barbara , linked by a series of mission stations along the coast.
The early maritime fur traders were explorers, as well as traders. The Northwest Coast is very complex � a "labyrinth of waters", according to George Simpson [17] � with thousands of islands, numerous straits and fjords , and a mountainous, rocky, and often very steep shoreline. Navigational hazards included persistent rain, high winds, thick fogs , strong currents , and tides , and hidden rocks.
Wind patterns were often contrary, variable, and baffling, especially within the coastal straits and archipelagoes , which makes sailing dangerous. Detailed surveys were undertaken in only a few relatively small areas, such as Nootka Sound , Bucareli Bay , and Cook Inlet.
Although noncommercial exploration voyages continued, especially by the Spanish Navy, [20] the maritime fur traders made a number of significant discoveries. George Dixon explored the Dixon Entrance and was the first to realize that the Queen Charlotte Islands were not part of the mainland.
Russian maritime fur trading in the northern Pacific began after the exploration voyages of Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov in and Their voyages demonstrated that Asia and North America were not connected but that sea voyages were feasible, and that the region was rich in furs. Unlike fur trading ventures in Siberia, these maritime expeditions required more capital than most promyshlenniki could obtain. Merchants from cities such as Irkutsk , Tobolsk , and others in European Russia , became the principal investors.
An early trader, Emilian Basov, traded at Bering Island in , collecting a large number of sea otter, fur seal , and blue Arctic fox furs.
In total, these voyages garnered over eight million silver rubles. They were hunted not only for food, but also for their skins, used to make boats, and their subcutaneous fat, used for oil lamps.
By , Steller's sea cow was extinct. By the s, they were regularly sailing to Kodiak Island. Notable Russian traders in the early years of the trade include Nikifor Trapeznikov who financed and participated in 10 voyages between and , Maksimovich Solov'ev, Stepan Glotov, and Grigory Shelikhov.
As traders sailed farther east, the voyages became longer and more expensive. Smaller enterprises were merged into larger ones. During the s, Grigory Shelikhov began to stand out as one of the most important traders through the Shelikhov-Golikov Company. Shelikhov envisioned a continual extension of the Russian maritime fur trade, with trading posts being set up farther and farther along the coast all the way to California. He sought exclusive control of the trade, and in Empress Catherine II decided to grant his company a monopoly only over the area it already occupied.
Other traders were free to compete elsewhere. Catherine's decision was issued as the imperial ukase proclamation of 28 September By the time of Catherine's ukase of , just as other nations were entering the maritime fur trade, the Russians had spent over 40 years establishing and expanding their maritime operations in North America.
A number of colonies were being established over a large region stretching from the Aleutian Islands to Cook Inlet and Prince William Sound.
Many ships sailed from Kamchatka to Alaska each year. The Kurilian, Kamchatkan, and Aleutian sea otters' fur was thicker, glossier, and blacker than those on the Northwest Coast and California. The most prized furs were those of Kurilian and Kamchatkan sea otters, Aleutian furs were second-grade, those of the Northwest Coast third, and the poorest grade was those of Californian sea otters.
The Russian system differed from the British and American systems in its relationship with indigenous peoples. Using the same method they had used in Siberia, the Russians employed or enserfed Aleut and Alutiiq people, the latter being a subgroup of the Yupik Eskimo people. Russian ships were mainly used for transporting and assisting native hunting parties. This differed from the British and American system, where the natives hunted sea otters and prepared the furs on their own, and were essentially independent agents of the fur trade.
The Russians did not trade freely with the native Alaskans; rather, they imposed a fur tribute known as yasak. In , it was banned in Russian America, only to be replaced by compulsory labor. The British entry into the maritime fur trade dates to and the third voyage of Captain James Cook. While sailing north to search for the fabled Northwest Passage , Cook discovered the Hawaiian Islands.
On the Northwest Coast, he spent a month in Nootka Sound , during which he and his crew traded with the Nuu-chah-nulth from the village of Yuquot. They ended up with over furs, mostly sea otter, but thought them of no great value. British interest in the maritime fur trade peaked between and , then declined as the French Revolutionary Wars diminished Britain's available manpower and investment capital. The country also concentrated its foreign trade activities in India.
Although the SSC was moribund by the late 18th century, it had been granted the exclusive right to British trade on the entire western coast of the Americas from Cape Horn to Bering Strait and for leagues around mi 1, km out into the Pacific Ocean. This, coupled with the EIC monopoly on British trade in China, meant sea otter skins were procurable only in the preserve of one monopoly and disposable only in that of the other. To operate legally, British maritime fur traders had to obtain licenses from both companies, which was difficult and expensive.
Others obtained only the SSC license and took their furs to England, where they were trans-shipped to China. The EIC usually allowed British vessels to import furs into Canton, but required the furs to be sold via EIC agents, and the company took a percentage of the returns. Thus, the last and most profitable leg of the maritime fur trade system�carrying Chinese goods to Europe and America�was denied to British traders.
The first trading vessel dispatched solely for the purpose of the fur trade was the British Sea Otter commanded by James Hanna in The promise of such profits encouraged other traders. He was rescued by the timely arrival of Dixon and Portlock. Meares organized a second expedition of two ships, the Felice Adventurero and Iphigenia Nubiana. Meares was captain of the Felice and William Douglas was captain of the Iphigenia.
Meares decided not to license his ships with the EIC, instead trying to conceal the illegal activity by using the flag of Portugal.
Meares later claimed that Chief Maquinna sold him some land and on it Meares had a building erected. These claims later became a point of dispute during the Nootka Crisis. Spain, which sought control of Nootka Sound, rejected both claims; the true facts of the matter have never been fully established.
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