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RapportA significant feature in the intrinsic motivation of students see page 20 will depend on their perception of what the teacher thinks of them, and how they are treated. It is no surprise, therefore, to find that what many people look for when they observe other people's lessons, is evidence of good rapport between the teacher and the class. Rapport means, in essence, the relationship that the students have with the teacher, and vice versa.
In the best lessons we will always see a positive, enjoyable and respectful relationship. Rapport is established in part when students become aware of our professionalism see above , but it also occurs as a result of the way we listen to and treat the students in our classrooms. In the first place, students want teachers to know their names rather than, say, just pointing at them.
But this is extremely difficult for teachers who see eight or nine groups a week. How can they remember all their students? Teachers have developed a num ber of strategies to help them remember students' names. One m ethod is to ask the students at least in the first week or two to put name cards on the desk in front of them or stick name badges on to their sweaters or jackets.
We can also draw up a seating plan and ask students always to sit in the same place until we have learnt their names. However, this means we can't move students around when we want to, and students -especially younger students -sometimes take pleasure in sitting in the wrong place just to confuse us.
Many teachers use the register to make notes about individual students Do they wear glasses? Are they tall? There is no easy way of remembering students' names, yet it is extremely im portant that we do so if good rapport is to be established with individuals.
We need, therefore, to find ways of doing this that suit us best. But 'knowing our names' is also about knowing about students. At any age, they will be pleased when they realise that their teacher has remembered things about them, and has some understanding of who they are. Once again, this is extremely difficult in large classes, especially when we have a num ber of different groups, but part of a teacher's skill is to persuade students that we recognise them, and who and what they are.
Listening to studentsStudents respond very well to teachers who listen to them. Another respondent in my research said that 'It's im portant that you can talk to the teacher when you have problems and you don't get along with the subject'.
Although there are many calls on a teacher's time, nevertheless we need to make ourselves as available as we can to listen to individual students. But we need to listen properly to students in lessons too.
And we need to show that we are interested in what they have to say. O f course, no one can force us to be genuinely interested in absolutely everything and everyone, but it is part of a teacher's professional personality see page 24 that we should be able to convince students that we are listening to what they say with every sign of attention.
As far as possible we also need to listen to the students' comments on how they are getting on, and which activities and techniques they respond well or badly to. If we just go on teaching the same thing day after day without being aware of our students' reactions, it will become more and more difficult to maintain the rapport that is so im portant for successful classes. Respecting studentsOne student I interviewed had absolutely no doubt about the key quality of good teachers. Correcting students see page 97 is always a delicate event.
If we are too critical, we 26 Teachers risk demotivating them, yet if we are constantly praising them, we risk turning them into 'praise junkies' , who begin to need approval all the time. The problem we face, however, is that while some students are happy to be corrected robustly, others need more support and positive reinforcement. In speaking activities see Chapter 9 , some students want to be corrected the m om ent they make any mistake, whereas others would like to be corrected later.
In other words, just as students have different learning styles and intelligences, so, too, they have different preferences when it comes to being corrected. But whichever method of correction we choose, and whoever we are working with, students need to know that we are treating them with respect, and not using mockery or sarcasm -or expressing despair at their efforts!
Respect is vital, too, when we deal with any kind of problem behaviour. We could, of course, respond to indiscipline or awkwardness by being biting in our criticism of the student who has done something we do not approve of. Yet this will be counterproductive. It is the behaviour we want to criticise, not the character of the student in question.
Teachers who respect students do their best to see them in a positive light. They are not negative about their learners or in the way they deal with them in class. They do not react with anger or ridicule when students do unplanned things, but instead use a respectful professionalism to solve the problem. Being even-handedMost teachers have some students that they like more than others. For example, we all tend to react well to those who take part, are cheerful and cooperative, take responsibility for their own learning, and do what we ask of them w ithout complaint.
Sometimes we are less enthusiastic about those who are less forthcoming, and who find learner autonomy, for example, more of a challenge.
Yet, as one of the students in my research said, 'a good teacher should try to draw out the quiet ones and control the more talkative ones', and one of her colleagues echoed this by saying that 'a good teacher is Students will generally respect teachers who show impartiality and who do their best to reach all the students in a group rather than just concentrating on the ones who 'always put their hands up'.
The reasons that some students are not forthcoming may be many and varied, ranging from shyness to their cultural or family backgrounds. Sometimes students are reluctant to take part overtly because of other stronger characters in the group. And these quiet students will only be negatively affected when they see far more attention being paid to their more robust classmates. At the same time, giving some students more attention than others may make those students more difficult to deal with later since they will come to expect special treatment, and may take our interest as a licence to become overdominant in the classroom.
Moreover, it is not just teenage students who can suffer from being the 'teacher's pet'. Treating all students equally not only helps to establish and maintain rapport, but is also a m ark of professionalism. Teacher tasksTeaching doesn't just involve the relationship we have with students, of course. As professionals we are also asked to perform certain tasks. Part of this preparation resides in the knowledge they have of their subject and the skill of teaching, something we will discuss in detail on pages But another feature of being well-prepared is having thought in advance of what we are going to do in our lessons.
As we walk towards our classroom, in other words, we need to have some idea of what the students are going to achieve in the lesson; we should have some learning outcomes in our head.
O f course, what happens in a lesson does not always conform to our plans for it, as we shall discuss on pages , but students always take comfort from the perception that their teacher has thought about what will be appropriate for their particular class on that particular day.
The degree to which we plan our lessons differs from teacher to teacher. It will often depend, among other things, on whether we have taught this lesson or something like it before.
We will discuss planning in detail in Chapter Keeping recordsMany teachers find the administrative features of their job taking the register, filling forms, writing report cards irksome, yet such record keeping is a necessary adjunct to the classroom experience.
There is one particularly good reason for keeping a record of what we have taught. It works as a way of looking back at what we have done in order to decide what to do next. And if we keep a record of how well things have gone what has been more or less successful , we will begin to come to conclusions about what works and what doesn't. It is im portant for professional teachers to try to evaluate how successful an activity has been in terms of student engagement and learning outcomes.
If we do this, we will start to amend our teaching practice in the light of experience, rather than getting stuck in sterile routines. It is one of the characteristics of good teachers that they are constantly changing and developing their teaching practice as a result of reflecting on their teaching experiences.
Being reliableProfessional teachers are reliable about things like timekeeping and homework. It is very difficult to berate students for being late for lessons if we get into the habit for whatever reason of turning up late ourselves. It is unsatisfactory to insist on the prom pt delivery of homework if it takes us weeks to correct it and give it back. Being reliable in this way is simply a m atter of following the old idiom of 'practising what we preach'.
Teacher skillsAs we have suggested, who we are and the way we interact with our students are vital components in successful teaching, as are the tasks which we are obliged to undertake. But these will not make us effective teachers unless we possess certain teacher skills. Managing classesEffective teachers see classroom management as a separate aspect of their skill.
In other words, whatever activity we ask our students to be involved in, or whether they are working with a board, a tape recorder or a computer, we will have thought of and be able to carry 28 Teachers out procedures to make the activity successful.
We will know how to put students into groups, or when to start and finish an activity. We will have worked out what kinds of instructions to give, and what order to do things in. We will have decided whether students should work in groups, in pairs or as a whole class. We will have considered whether we want to move them around the class, or move the chairs into a different seating pattern see pages We will discuss classroom management in more detail in Chapter 3.
Successful class management also involves being able to prevent disruptive behaviour and reacting to it effectively when it occurs see pages [][][].
Matching tasks and groupsStudents will learn more successfully if they enjoy the activities they are involved in and are interested or stimulated by the topics we or they bring into the classroom.
But even in such situations there is a lot we can do to make sure we cater for the range of needs and interests of the students in our classes see pages [14][15][16][17][18][19][20]. Many teachers have the unsettling experience of using an activity with, say, two or three groups and having considerable success only to find that it completely fails in the next class. There could be many reasons for this, including the students, the time of day, a mismatch between the task and the level or just the fact that the group weren't 'in the m ood'.
However, what such experiences clearly suggest is that we need to think carefully about matching activities and topics to the different groups we teach. Whereas, for example, some groups seem happy to work creatively on their own, others need more help and guidance. Where some students respond well to teacher presentation with the teacher acting as a controller , others are much happier when they investigate language issues on their own.
VarietyGood teachers vary activities and topics over a period of time. The best activity type will be less motivating the sixth time we ask the students to take part in it than it was when they first came across it. Much of the value of an activity, in other words, resides in its freshness. But even where we use the same activity types for some reason because the curriculum expects this or because it is a feature of the materials we are using , it is im portant to try to ensure that learner roles are not always the same.
If we use a lot of group discussion, for example, we want to be sure that the same student isn't always given the role of taking notes, rather than actually participating in the discussion themselves. W hen we get students to read texts, we won't always have them work on comprehension questions in the same way. Sometimes they might compare answers in pairs; sometimes they might interview each other about the text; sometimes they m ight do all the work on their own.
Variety works within lessons, too. It is not just children who can become bored by doing the same thing all the time. Thus, although there may be considerable advantages in using language drills for beginner students, we won't want to keep a drill running for half an hour because it would exhaust both students and teacher. However, we might make a different kind of activity, such as a role-play, last for longer than this.
A lot depends on exactly what we are asking students to do. Just because reading comprehension exercises always look the same in a book, for example, it doesn't mean we always have to approach them in the same way. We will discuss ways of using and adapting coursebooks in more detail in Chapter DestinationsW hen we take learning activities into the classroom, we need to persuade our students of their usefulness.
Good activities should have some kind of destination or learning outcome, and it is the job of the teacher to make this destination apparent. Students need to have an idea of where they are going, and more importantly, to recognise when they have got there. O f course, some activities, such as discussions, don't have a fixed end. Nevertheless, even in such circumstances, it will be helpful if we can make sure that students leave the class with some tangible result.
That is why a summing-up, or feedback session at the end of a discussion, for example, is so valuable. Teacher knowledgeApart from the ability to create and foster good teacher-student rapport and the possession of skills necessary for organising successful lessons, teachers need to know a lot about the subject they are teaching the English language.
They will need to know what equipment is available in their school and how to use it. They need to know what materials are available for teachers and students. They should also do their best to keep abreast of new developments in teaching approaches and techniques by consulting a range of print material, online resources, and by attending, where possible, development sessions and teacher seminars.
The language systemLanguage teachers need to know how the language works. This means having a knowledge of the grammar system and understanding the lexical system: how words change their shape depending on their grammatical function, and how they group together into phrases.
They need to be aware of pronunciation features such as sounds, stress and intonation. These different features of the language system are explained in Chapter 5. Students have a right to expect that teachers of the English language can explain straightforward gram m ar concepts, including how and when they are used.
They expect their teachers to know the difference between the colloquial language that people use in informal conversation and the more formal language required in more formal settings. They also expect teachers to be able to demonstrate and help them to pronounce words correctly and with appropriate intonation. W hen students have doubts about the language, they frequently ask their teachers to explain things. They ask 'W hat's the difference between But at other times the issue is one of great complexity and even the most experienced teacher will have difficulty giving an instant answer.
In other words, our knowledge of the language system may not be adequate for certain kinds of on-the-spot questions about subtleties.
Moreover, sometimes the question is not especially relevant -it is a distraction from what is going on in the lesson. I think the answer is X, but I will check to make sure and I will bring you a more complete answer tom orrow ' or 'That's a very interesting question. I don't want to answer it now because we are doing something else. But you can find the answer yourself if you go to this book. We'll discuss it tom orrow'. Students will realise that these answers are perfectly appropriate when the teacher does indeed return for the next lesson with the information that they have promised.
This will demonstrate the teacher's knowledge of the language and reference materials. But if, on the other hand, we forget to find the information and never m ention the question again, students will gradually start to think we just don't know enough about the language to find what we are looking for -or that we just don't care.
Materials and resourcesWhen students ask the kind of complicated questions m entioned above, good teachers know where to find the answers. We need, in other words, to know about books and websites where such technical information is available. However, this is quite a challenge in today's world, where the sheer num ber of coursebook titles released every year can sometimes seem overwhelming, and where there are quite a significant num ber of grammar books and monolingual learners' dictionaries MLDs to choose from -to say nothing of the multitude of useful websites on the Internet.
No one expects teachers to be all-knowing in this respect: what colleagues and students can expect, however, is that teachers know where to find at least one good reference grammar at the appropriate level, or a good MLD, or can direct them to a library or a website where they can find these things.
If teachers are using a coursebook, students expect them, of course, to know how the materials work. Their confidence will be greatly enhanced if they can see that the teacher has looked at the material they are using before the lesson, and has worked out a way of dealing with it. Classroom equipmentOver the last few decades the growth in different types of classroom equipment has been incredible.
Once upon a time we only had pens, board and chalk to work with. But then along came the tape recorder, the language laboratory, video machines, the overhead projector, computers, data projectors and interactive whiteboards these are all described in Appendix A on page Some teachers are more comfortable with these various pieces of educational technology than others.
This will always be the case. There is no reason why everyone should be equally proficient at everything. However, students will expect that teachers should know how to use the equipm ent that they have elected to use. Learning how to use various types of equipment is a major part of m odern teacher training.
However, we should do everything in our power to avoid being overzealous about the equipm ent itself. It is only worth using if it can do things that other equipment or routines cannot. The essentials of good teaching -i. W hat has changed recently, though, is that students can do things they were unable to do before thanks to technical innovation. Thus m odern podcasts downloadable listening which can be played on individual MP3 players give students many more listening opportunities than ever before.
They can also write their own blogs Internet diaries and put them on the web. They can burn CDs with examples of their work and the materials used in class to take home when a course has finished. They can search for a wide range of language and information resources in a way that would have been impossible a few years ago. As teachers, we need to do everything we can to keep abreast of technological change in educational resources. But we should never let technology drive our decisions about teaching and learning.
We should, instead, decide what our learners want to achieve and only then see what kind of techniques and technology will help them to do this. Keeping up-to-dateTeachers need to know how to use a variety of activities in the classroom, of course, but they also need to be constantly finding out about new ways of doing things. A good way of learning about new activities and techniques is to read the various teachers' magazines and journals that are available see Appendix B on page There is now a wealth of information about teaching on the Internet, too.
Magazines, books and websites often contain good descriptions of new activities and how to use them. We can also learn a lot from attending seminars and teachers' conferences, and listening to other teachers describing new activities and the successes they have had with them.
Two things need to be said about the various 'knowledges' we have been describing. In the first place, it is difficult for newly qualified teachers to keep everything in their heads at the same time as they struggle with the demands of a new job. Nevertheless, as they learn their craft, we would expect them to be hungry for as much knowledge in these areas as possible since this will make them better teachers.
Secondly, this kind of knowledge is not static, hence the need to keep up-to-date. Things change almost daily. New books, classroom equipm ent and computer software are being produced all the time, just as teachers keep coming up with wonderful new ways of doing old things such as grammar presentation or discussion activities. Staying in touch with these developments can seem daunting, of course, because of the pace of change, but it is worth remembering how deadly it would be if things always stayed the same.
Art or science? Is teaching language an art, then, or is it a science? As this chapter has shown, there are good grounds for focusing its almost-scientific attributes. Understanding the language system and finding the best ways to explain it is some kind of a scientific endeavour, especially when we continue to research its changes and evolution. In the same way, some of the technical skills that are required of teachers procedures for how to do things, a constant attention to innovation in educational technology and materials design need to be almost scientific in their rigour.
Yet teaching is an art, too. It works when the relationship that is created between teacher and students, and between the students in a group, is at its best. If we have managed to establish a good rapport with a group, almost anything is possible. We have discussed some of the key requirements in creating such a rapport, yet behind everything we have said lurks the possibility of magic -or a lack of it. Because the way some teachers are able to establish fantastic rapport, or get students really interested in a new activity may be observable, but trying to work out exactly how it was done or why it happened may be more difficult.
In the same way, the instant decision-making we have been discussing can happen on supposedly Classroom managementIf we want to manage classrooms effectively, we have to be able to handle a range of variables. These include how the classroom space is organised, whether the students are working on their own or in groups and how we organise classroom time.
We also need to consider how we appear to the students, and how we use our most valuable asset -our voice. The way we talk to students -and who talks most in the lesson -is another key factor in classroom management. We also need to think about what role, if any, there may be for the use of the students' mother tongue in lessons. Successful classroom management also involves being able to deal with difficult situations -an issue we will discuss on pages O ur physical presence can play a large part in our management of the classroom environment.
And it's not just appearance either though that was clearly an issue for the secondary student in Chapter 2 -page The way we move and stand, and the degree to which we are physically demonstrative can have a clear effect on the management of the class. Most importantly, the way we are able to respond to what happens in class, the degree to which we are aware of what is going on, often marks the difference between successful teaching and less satisfactory lessons.
All teachers, like all people, have their own physical characteristics and habits, and they will take these into the classroom with them. But there are a num ber of issues to consider which are not just matters of personality or style and which have a direct bearing on the students' perception of us.
ProximityTeachers need to consider how close they should be to the students they are working with. Some students are uncomfortable if their teacher stands or sits close to them.
For some, The teacher in the classroom on the other hand, distance is a sign of coldness. Teachers should be conscious of how close they are to their students, should take this into account when assessing their students' reactions and should, if necessary, modify their behaviour.
AppropriacyDeciding how close to the students you should be when you work with them is a matter of appropriacy. So is the general way in which teachers sit or stand in classrooms.
Many teachers create an extremely friendly atmosphere by crouching down when they work with students in pairs. In this way, they are at the same level as their seated students. However, some students find this informality worrying. Some teachers are even happy to sit on the floor, and in certain situations this may be appropriate.
But in others it may well lead to a situation where students are put off concentrating. All the positions teachers take -sitting on the edge of tables, standing behind a lectern, standing on a raised dais, etc -make strong statements about the kind of person the teacher is. It is important, therefore, to consider what kind of effect such physical behaviour has so that we can behave in a way which is appropriate to the students we are teaching and the relationship we wish to create with them.
If we want to manage a class effectively, such a relationship is crucial. MovementSome teachers tend to spend most of their class time in one place -at the front of the class, for example, or to the side, or in the middle. Others spend a great deal of time walking from side to side, or striding up and down the aisles between the chairs. Although this, again, is to some extent a m atter of personal preference, it is worth remembering that motionless teachers can bore students, while teachers who are constantly in m otion can turn their students into tennis spectators, their heads moving from side to side until they become exhausted.
Most successful teachers move around the classroom to some extent. That way they can retain their students' interest if they are leading an activity or work more closely with smaller groups when they go to help a pair or group.
How m uch we move around in the classroom will depend on our personal style, where we feel most comfortable for the management of the class and whether or not we want to work with smaller groups. AwarenessIn order to manage a class successfully, the teacher has to be aware of what students are doing and, where possible, how they are feeling.
This means watching and listening just as carefully as teaching. This will be difficult if we keep too much distance or if we are perceived by the students to be cold and aloof because then we will find it difficult to establish the kind of rapport we m entioned in Chapter 2.
Awareness means assessing what students have said and responding appropriately. According to the writer Michael Lewis, a colleague of his, Peter Wilberg, put this perfectly when he said that 'the teacher's prim ary responsibility is response-ability'! This means being able to perceive the success or failure of what is taking place in the classroom, and being flexible enough see page to respond to what is going on.
We need to be as conscious as possible of what is going on in the students' heads. It is almost impossible to help students to learn a language in a classroom setting w ith out making contact with them in this way.
The exact nature of this contact will vary from teacher to teacher and from class to class. Finally, it is not just awareness of the students that is im portant. We also need to be self-aware, in order to try to gauge the success or otherwise of our behaviour and to gain an understanding of how our students see us. The teacher's physical approach and personality in the class is one aspect of class management to consider.
Another is one of the teacher's chief tools: the voice. Using the voicePerhaps our most im portant instrum ent as teachers is our voice. How we speak and what our voice sounds like have a crucial impact on classes. W hen considering the use of the voice in the management of teaching, there are three issues to think about. A udibilityClearly, teachers need to be audible.
They must be sure that the students at the back of the class can hear them just as well as those at the front. But audibility cannot be divorced from voice quality: a rasping shout is always unpleasant. Teachers do not have to shout to be audible. Good voice projection is more im portant than volume though the two are, of course, connected.
Speaking too softly or unpleas antly loudly are both irritating and unhelpful for students. VarietyIt is im portant for teachers to vary the quality of their voices -and the volume they speak at -according to the type of lesson and the type of activity.
The kind of voice we use to give instructions or introduce a new activity will be different from the voice which is most appropriate for conversation or an informal exchange of views or information. In one particular situation, teachers often use very loud voices, and that is when they want students to be quiet or stop doing something see the next section. But it is worth pointing out that speaking quietly is often just as effective a way of getting the students' attention since, when they realise that you are talking, they will want to stop and listen in case you are saying something im portant or interesting.
However, for teachers who almost never raise their voices, the occasional shouted interjection may have an extremely dramatic effect, and this can sometimes be beneficial.
Conservationlust like opera singers, teachers have to take great care of their voices. It is im portant that they breathe correctly so that they don't strain their larynxes. Breathing properly means being relaxed in the shoulders, for example, and not slumped backwards or forwards , and using the lower abdomen to help expand the rib cage, thus filling the lungs with air. It is im portant too that teachers vary their voices throughout the day, avoiding shouting wherever possible, so that they can conserve their vocal energy.
Conserving the voice is one of the things teachers will want to take into account when planning a day's or a week's work. It does, however, require teachers to empathise with the people they are talking to by establishing a good rapport with them.
Such a description is necessary if we want to be able to differentiate between some sounds which, in the preceding discussion, we have placed in the same category. For example, we can say that [t] and [s] are both voiceless alveolar sounds. How do they differ? They differ in their manner of articulation, that is, in the way they are pronounced.
The [t] sound is one of a set of sounds called stops and the [s] sound is one of a set called fricatives. A full description of the [t] sound at the beginning of a word like ten is as a voiceless alveolar stop.
In some discussions, only the manner of articulation is mentioned, as when it is said that the word bed, for example, begins and ends with voiced stops. As the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives. If you put your open hand in front of your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s] in particular, you should be able to feel the stream of air being pushed out.
The sound [h], as in Hi or Hello, is voiceless and also usually included in the set of fricatives. These are called affricates and occur at the beginning of the words cheap and jeep. Nasals Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing airflow from entering the nasal cavity.
These three sounds are all voiced. The words morning, knitting and name begin and end with nasals. Liquids The initial sounds in led and red are described as liquids. They are both voiced. The [l] sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the air stream flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge. The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge.
Glides The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They are both voiced and occur at the beginning of we, wet, you and yes. Try saying the expression Oh oh!. Between the first Oh and the second oh, we typically produce a glottal stop. This sound is considered to be characteristic of Cockney London speech. This sound is produced by the tongue tip tapping the alveolar ridge briefly. Nor do writer and rider, metal and medal.
They all have flaps. The student who was told about the importance of Plato in class and wrote it in his notes as play- dough was clearly a victim of a misinterpreted flap. This rather lengthy list of the phonetic features of English consonant sounds is not presented as a challenge to your ability to memorize a lot of terminology and symbols. It is presented as an illustration of how a thorough description of the physical aspects of speech production will allow us to characterize the sounds of spoken English, inde- pendently of the vagaries of spelling found in written English.
There are, however, some sounds that we have not yet investigated. These are the types of sounds known as vowels and diphthongs. Vowels While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or obstruction in the vocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flow of air.
They are all typically voiced. To describe vowel sounds, we consider the way in which the tongue influences the shape through which the airflow must pass.
For the first two, your mouth will stay fairly closed, but for the last two, your tongue will move lower and cause your mouth to open wider. The sounds of relaxation and pleasure typically contain lower vowels. The terminology for describing vowel sounds in English e. Following the chart is a list of the major vowels with examples of familiar words illustrating some of the variation in spelling that is possible for each sound.
The movement in this diphthong is from low towards high front. While the vowels [e], [a] and [o] are used as single sounds in other languages, and in some other varieties of English, they are only typically used as the first sounds of diphthongs in American English. The accompanying diagram provides a rough idea of how diphthongs are produced and is followed by a list of the sounds, with examples to illustrate some of the variation in the spelling of these sounds.
Also, some of the sound distinc- tions shown here may not even be used regularly in your own speech. In fact, in casual speech, we all use schwa more than any other single sound. There are many other variations in the actual physical articulation of the sounds we have considered here. The more we focus on the subtle differences in the actual articulation of each sound, the more likely we are to find ourselves describing the pronunciation of small groups or even individual speakers.
Such subtle differences enable us to identify individual voices and recognize people we know as soon as they speak. We are clearly able to disregard all the subtle individual variation in the phonetic detail of voices and recognize each underlying sound type as part of a word with a particular meaning. To make sense of how we do that, we need to look at the more general sound patterns, or the phonology, of a language. The sounds of language 37 Study questions 1 What is the difference between acoustic phonetics and articulatory phonetics?
Keeping this in mind, try to provide a basic phonetic representation of the following words. Some words will be in more than one list. So we say that [k] is a voiceless velar fricative. Write similar definitions for the initial sounds in the normal pronunciation of the following words. Among the types of consonants already described affricates, fricatives, glides, liquids, nasals, stops , which are obstruents, which are sonorants, and why? E i How would you make a retroflex sound?
F What is forensic phonetics? In front of a mirror or enlist a cooperative friend to be the speaker , say the following pairs of words. What clues are you using to help you make your decision? II English has a number of expressions such as chit-chat and flip-flop which never seem to occur in the reverse order i. Perhaps you can add examples to the following list of similar expressions. Further reading Basic treatments Ladefoged, P. Roach, J. Hartman and J. Live inne contri nire foresta.
No mugheggia. Uanna dei pappa, mamma, e beibi go bice, orie e furghetta locche di dorra. Bai ene bai commese Goldilocchese. Sci garra natingha tu du batte meiche troble. Sci puscia olle fudde daon di maute; no live cromma. Den sci gos appesterrese enne slipse in olle beddse. Bob Belviso, quoted in Espy In the preceding chapter, we investigated the physical production of speech sounds in terms of the articulatory mechanisms of the human vocal tract.
That investigation was possible because of some rather amazing facts about the nature of language. Yet those two physically different individuals would inevitably have physically different vocal tracts, in terms of size and shape. In a sense, every individual has a physically different vocal tract. Consequently, in purely physical terms, every individual will pronounce sounds differently.
There are, then, potentially millions of physically different ways of saying the simple word me. Obvious differences occur when that individual is shouting, is suffering from a bad cold or is asking for a sixth martini. Given this vast range of potential differences in the actual physical production of a speech sound, how do we manage consistently to recognize all those versions of me as the form [mi], and not [ni] or [si] or [ma] or [mo] or something else entirely?
The answer to that question is provided to a large extent by the study of phonology. Phonology Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.
It is, in effect, based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language. Because of this theoretical status, phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.
See the end of the chapter for a translation. Phonology is about the underlying design, the blueprint of each sound type, which serves as the constant basis of all the variations in different physical articulations of that sound type in different contexts. In actual speech, these [t] sounds are all very different.
However, all these articulation differences in [t] sounds are less important to us than the distinction between the [t] sounds in general and the [k] sounds, or the [f] sounds, or the [b] sounds, because there are meaningful consequences related to the use of one rather than the others. These sounds must be distinct meaningful sounds, regardless of which individual vocal tract is being used to pronounce them, because they are what make the words tar, car, far and bar meaningfully distinct.
Considered from this point of view, we can see that phonology is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a language that allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we say and hear.
Phonemes Each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme. When we learn to use alphabetic writing, we are actually using the concept of the phoneme as the single stable sound type which is represented by a single written symbol.
An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. This contrastive property is the basic operational test for determining the phonemes that exist in a language.
If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. The basic phonemes of English are listed with the consonant, vowel and diphthong diagrams in Chapter 3. Because these two sounds share some features i. The prediction would be that sounds which have features in common would behave phonologically in some similar ways. A sound which does not share those features would be expected to behave differently.
If so, then we will be on our way to producing a phonological account of permissible sound sequences in the language. We can describe those different versions as phones. Phones are phonetic units and appear in square brackets. For example, the [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger puff of air than is present in the [t] sound in the word star. If you put the back of your hand in front of your mouth as you say tar, then star, you should be able to feel some physical evidence of aspiration the puff of air accompanying the [t] sound at the beginning of tar but not in star.
In the last chapter, we noted that the [t] sound between vowels in a word like writer often becomes a flap, which we can represent as [D]. The crucial distinction between phonemes and allophones is that substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different meaning as well as a different pronunciation , but substituting allophones only results in a different and perhaps unusual pronunciation of the same word.
In the second word, the effect of the nasal consonant [n] makes the [i] sound nasalized. It is possible, of course, for two languages to have the same pair of phonetic seg- ments, but to treat them differently.
In English, the effect of nasalization on a vowel is treated as allophonic variation because the nasalized version is not meaningfully contrastive. Clearly, in these cases, the distinction is phonemic. Minimal pairs and sets Phonemic distinctions in a language can be tested via pairs and sets of words.
When two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair.
More accurately, they would be classified as a minimal pair in the phonology of English. Other examples of English minimal pairs are fan�van, bet�bat, site�side. Such pairs have traditionally been used in the teaching and testing of English as a second or foreign language to help students develop the ability to understand the contrast in meaning based on the minimal sound contrast. When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme always in the same position in the word , then we have a minimal set.
The sound patterns of language 45 For example, one minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English could include feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, foot, and another minimal set based on consonant phonemes could have big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig. Phonotactics This type of exercise involving minimal sets also allows us to see that there are definite patterns in the types of sound combinations permitted in a language.
In English, the minimal set we have just listed does not include forms such as lig or vig. According to the dictionary, these are not English words, but they could be viewed as possible English words. That is, our phonological knowledge of the pattern of sounds in English words would allow us to treat these forms as acceptable if, at some future time, they came into use.
They might, for example, begin as invented abbreviations I think Bubba is one very ignorant guy. They have been formed without obeying some constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes. Such constraints are called the phono- tactics i. Because these constraints operate on a unit that is larger than the single segment or phoneme, we have to move on to a consideration of the basic structure of that larger phonological unit called the syllable.
Syllables A syllable must contain a vowel or vowel-like sound, including diphthongs. The most common type of syllable in language also has a consonant C before the vowel V and is typically represented as CV. Technically, the basic elements of the syllable are the onset one or more consonants followed by the rhyme.
The rhyme sometimes syllable onset rhyme nucleus coda consonant s vowel consonant s Figure 4. Syllables like me, to or no have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda. They are known as open syllables. When a coda is present, as in the syllables up, cup, at or hat, they are called closed syllables.
Consonant clusters Both the onset and the coda can consist of more than one consonant, also known as a consonant cluster.
There are many CC onset combinations permitted in English phonotactics, as in black, bread, trick, twin, flat and throw. English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in the words stress and splat, consisting of three initial consonants CCC.
The phonotactics of these larger onset consonant clusters is not too difficult to describe. You can check if this description is adequate for the combinations in splash, spring, strong, scream and square. Does the description also cover the second syllable in the pronunciation of exclaim? Remember that it is the onset of the syllable that is being described, not the beginning of the word.
It is quite unusual for languages to have consonant clusters of this type. Indeed, the syllable structure of many languages e. Japanese is predominantly CV. It is also noticeable in English that large consonant clusters may be reduced in casual conversa- tional speech, particularly if they occur in the middle of a word. This is just one example of a process that is usually discussed in terms of coarticulation effects. Coarticulation effects In much of the preceding discussion, we have been describing speech sounds in syllables and words as if they are always pronounced carefully and deliberately, almost in slow motion.
Mostly our talk is fast and spontaneous, and it requires our articulators to move from one sound to the next without stopping. The process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next sound is called coarticulation. There are two well-known coarticulation effects, described as assimilation and elision. Vowels are also subject to assimilation. In many words spoken carefully, the vowel receives stress, but in the course of ordinary everyday talk, that vowel may no longer receive any stress and naturally reduce to schwa.
Elision In the last example, illustrating the normal pronunciation of you and me, the [d] sound of the word and was not included in the transcription. This process of not pro- nouncing a sound segment that might be present in the deliberately careful pronunci- ation of a word in isolation is described as elision.
In fact, consistently avoiding the regular patterns of assimilation and elision used in a lan- guage would result in extremely artificial-sounding talk.
The point of investigating these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set of rules about how a language should be pronounced, but to try to come to an understanding of the regularities and patterns which underlie the actual use of sounds in language.
The sound patterns of language 49 Study questions 1 What is the difference between a phoneme and an allophone?
B In the phonology of Hawaiian there are only open syllables. Also, based on this slender evidence, which two English consonants are probably not phonemes in Hawaiian? C The word central has a consonant cluster -ntr- in the middle and two syllables.
D Individual sounds are described as segments. What are suprasegmentals? E The English words lesson and little are typically pronounced with syllabic consonants. F A general distinction can be made among languages depending on their basic rhythm, whether they have syllable-timing or stress-timing. How are these two types of rhythm distinguished and which type characterizes the pronunciation of English, French and Spanish?
How would you describe the special phonological processes involved in the pronunciation of the negative versions of the following words? II The use of plural -s in English has three different, but very regular, phonological alternatives. For background reading, see chapter 2 pages 55�56 of Jeffries, Bob Belviso translated One attempt to interpret those very unusual spellings might be as follows: Once upon a time was three bears; mama bear, papa bear, and baby bear.
Live in the country near the forest. No mortgage. One day papa, mama, and baby go beach, only they forget to lock the door. By and by comes Goldilocks. She got nothing to do but make trouble. She push all the food down the mouth; no leave a crumb. Then she goes upstairs and sleeps in all the beds. Further reading Basic treatments Davenport, M. Murray Spangler invented a device which he called an electric suction sweeper.
This device eventually became very popular and could have been known as a spangler. People could have been spanglering their floors or they might even have spanglered their rugs and curtains. The use could have extended to a type of person who droned on and on and really sucked , described as spanglerish, or to a whole style of behavior called spanglerism.
However, none of that happened. Word formation 53 Instead, Mr. Spangler sold his new invention to a local businessman called William H. The point of this small tale is that, although we had never heard of Mr.
Spangler before, we really had no difficulty coping with the new words: spangler, spanglerish, spanglerism, spanglering or spanglered. That is, we can very quickly understand a new word in our language a neologism and accept the use of different forms of that new word. This ability must derive in part from the fact that there is a lot of regularity in the word-formation processes in a language. In this chapter, we will explore some of the basic processes by which new words are created. When we look closely at the etymol- ogies of less technical words, we soon discover that there are many different ways in which new words can enter the language.
We should keep in mind that these processes have been at work in the language for some time and a lot of words in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric misuses of the language. Yet many new words can cause similar outcries as they come into use today.
Rather than act as if the language is being debased, we might prefer to view the constant evolution of new words and new uses of old words as a reassuring sign of vitality and creativeness in the way a language is shaped by the needs of its users. Coinage One of the least common processes of word formation in English is coinage, that is, the invention of totally new terms. The most typical sources are invented trade names for commercial products that become general terms usually without capital letters for any version of that product.
It may be that there is an obscure technical origin e. The most salient contemporary example of coinage is the word google. New words based on the name of a person or a place are called eponyms.
When we talked about a hoover or even a spangler , we were using an eponym. Other common eponyms are sandwich from the eighteenth-century Earl of Sandwich who first insisted on having his bread and meat together while gambling and jeans from the Italian city of Genoa where the type of cloth was first made.
Some eponyms are technical terms, based on the names of those who first discovered or invented things, such as fahrenheit from the German, Gabriel Fahrenheit , volt from the Italian, Alessandro Volta and watt from the Scottish inventor, James Watt. Borrowing As Bill Bryson observed in the quotation presented earlier, one of the most common sources of new words in English is the process simply labeled borrowing, that is, the taking over of words from other languages.
Throughout its history, the English language has adopted a vast number of words from other languages, including croissant French , dope Dutch , lilac Persian , piano Italian , pretzel German , sofa Arabic , tattoo Tahitian , tycoon Japanese , yogurt Turkish and zebra Bantu.
In some cases, the borrowed words may be used with quite different meanings, as in the contemporary German use of the English words partner and look in the phrase im Partnerlook to describe two people who are together and are wearing similar clothing. There is no equivalent use of this expression in English. The English expression moment of truth is believed to be a calque from the Spanish phrase el momento de la verdad, though not restricted to the original use as the final thrust of the sword to end a bullfight.
Compounding In some of the examples we have just considered, there is a joining of two separate words to produce a single form. Thus, Lehn and Wort are combined to produce Lehnwort in German. This combining process, technically known as compounding, is very common in languages such as German and English, but much less common in languages such as French and Spanish. Common English compounds are bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, sunburn, textbook, wallpaper, wastebasket and waterbed.
All these examples are nouns, but we can also create compound adjectives good-looking, low-paid and compounds of adjective fast plus noun food as in a fast-food restau- rant or a full-time job.
Blending The combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term is also present in the process called blending. However, blending is typically accomplished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word.
There is also the word fax, but that is not a blend. Clipping The element of reduction that is noticeable in blending is even more apparent in the process described as clipping. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable facsimile is reduced to a shorter form fax , usually beginning in casual speech. The term gasoline is still used, but most people talk about gas, using the clipped form.
Other common examples are ad advertisement , bra brassiere , cab cabriolet , condo condominium , fan fanatic , flu influenza , perm permanent wave , phone, plane and pub public house. There must be something about educational environments that encourages clipping because so many words get reduced, as in chem, exam, gym, lab, math, phys-ed, poly- sci, prof and typo.
A particular type of reduction, favored in Australian and British English, produces forms technically known as hypocorisms. In this process, a longer word is reduced to a single syllable, then -y or -ie is added to the end. You can probably guess what Chrissy pressies are. Backformation A very specialized type of reduction process is known as backformation. A good example of backformation is the process whereby the noun television first came into use and then the verb televise was created from it.
One very regular source of backformed verbs in English is based on the common pattern worker � work. The assumption seems to have been that if there is a noun ending in -er or something close in sound , then we can create a verb for what that noun -er does. Hence, an editor will edit, a sculptor will sculpt and burglars, peddlers and swindlers will burgle, peddle and swindle. Conversion A change in the function of a word, as for example when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction , is generally known as conversion.
The conversion process is particularly productive in Modern English, with new uses occurring frequently. The conversion can involve verbs becoming nouns, with guess, must and spy as the sources of a guess, a must and a spy. Phrasal verbs to print out, to take over also become nouns a printout, a takeover. Verbs see through, stand up also become adjectives, as in see-through material or a stand-up comedian.
Or adjectives, as in a dirty floor, an empty room, some crazy ideas and those nasty people, can become the verbs to dirty and to empty, or the nouns a crazy and the nasty.
Some compound nouns have assumed adjectival or verbal functions, exemplified by the ball park appearing in a ball-park figure or asking someone to ball-park an estimate of the cost. Other nouns of this type are carpool, mastermind, microwave and quarter- back, which are all regularly used as verbs. The verb to doctor often Photo Of Lil Yachty Quote has a negative sense, not normally associated with the source noun a doctor.
A similar kind of reanalysis of meaning is taking place with respect to the noun total and the verb run around, which do not have negative meanings. Acronyms Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words.
Some new acronyms come into general use so quickly that many speakers do not think of their component meanings. Derivation In our list so far, we have not dealt with what is by far the most common word- formation process to be found in the production of new English words. Some familiar examples are the elements un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -ism and -ness which appear in words like unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish, terrorism and sadness.
Word formation 59 Prefixes and suffixes Looking more closely at the preceding group of words, we can see that some affixes have to be added to the beginning of the word e. These are called prefixes. Other affixes have to be added to the end of the word e.
All English words formed by this derivational process have either prefixes or suffixes, or both. Thus, mislead has a prefix, disrespectful has both a prefix and a suffix, and foolishness has two suffixes. Infixes There is a third type of affix, not normally used in English, but found in some other languages.
This is called an infix and, as the term suggests, it is an affix that is incorporated inside another word. It is possible to see the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Hallebloodylujah! The expletive may even have an infixed element, as in godtripledammit!.
However, a much better set of examples can be provided from Kamhmu, a language spoken in South East Asia. Multiple processes Although we have concentrated on each of these word-formation processes in isola- tion, it is possible to trace the operation of more than one process at work in the creation of a particular word. For example, the term deli seems to have become a common American English expression via a process of first borrowing delicatessen from German and then clipping that borrowed form.
If someone says that problems with the project have snowballed, the final word can be analyzed as an example of compounding in which snow and ball were combined to form the noun snowball, which was then turned into a verb through conversion.
Forms that begin as acronyms can also go through other processes, as in the use of lase as a verb, the result of backformation from laser.
The formation of this new word, however, was helped by a quite different process, known simply as analogy, whereby new words are formed to be similar in some way to existing words. Yuppie was made possible as a new word by analogy with the earlier word hippie and another short-lived analogy yippie. One joke has it that yippies just grew up to be yuppies. And the process continues. Many of these new words can, of course, have a very brief life-span. It would seem that Noah had a keener sense than his critics of which new word-forms in the language were going to last.
Word formation 61 Study questions 1 What is the difference between etymology and entomology? How would you describe the other s? Can you identify the processes involved in each case?
Were there any examples in this chapter? How many examples were included in this chapter? Are any of them eponyms? Using a dictionary if necessary, try to describe the word-formation processes involved in the creation of the underlined words in these sentences. E Another type of affix is called a circumfix. Here are some examples from Indonesian.
F When Hmong speakers from Laos and Vietnam settled in the USA, they had to create some new words for the different objects and experiences they encountered. Using the following translations provided by Bruce Downing and Judy Fuller , can you work out the English equivalents of the Hmong expressions listed below?
Using the examples below, and any others that you want to include in the discussion, try to decide if there are any typical patterns in the way we form compounds. From these examples, and any others that you think might be relevant to the discussion, can you work out what the rule s might be for making new adjectives with the suffix -able? Further reading Basic treatments Denning, K. Kessler and W. Spencer and A. Zwicky eds. Naish, C. Rensch and G. Unfortunately, there are a number of problems with using this observation as the basis of an attempt to describe language in general, and individual linguistic forms in particular.
For example, in Swahili spoken throughout East Africa , the form nitakupenda conveys what, in English, would have to be represented as something like I will love you. Now, is the Swahili form a single word? We can recognize that English word forms such as talks, talker, talked and talking must consist of one element talk, and a number of other elements such as -s, -er, -ed and -ing.
All these elements are described as morphemes. In the sentence The police reopened the investigation, the word reopened consists of three morphemes. The word tourists also contains three morphemes. Free and bound morphemes From these examples, we can make a broad distinction between two types of mor- phemes. There are free morphemes, that is, morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words, for example, open and tour. There are also bound morphemes, which are those forms that cannot normally stand alone and are typically attached to another form, exemplified as re-, -ist, -ed, -s.
These forms were described in Chapter 5 as affixes. So, we can say that all affixes prefixes and suffixes in English are bound morphemes.
The free morphemes can generally be identified as the set of separate English word forms such as basic nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. When they are used with bound morphemes attached, the basic word forms are technically known as stems. For example: undressed carelessness un- dress -ed care -less -ness prefix stem suffix stem suffix suffix bound free bound free bound bound We should note that this type of description is a partial simplification of the morpho- logical facts of English.
There are a number of English words in which the element treated as the stem is not, in fact, a free morpheme. In words such as receive, reduce and repeat, we can identify the bound morpheme re- at the beginning, but the elements -ceive, -duce and -peat are not separate word forms and hence cannot be free mor- phemes.
Lexical and functional morphemes What we have described as free morphemes fall into two categories. These free morphemes are called lexical morphemes and some examples are: girl, man, house, tiger, sad, long, yellow, sincere, open, look, follow, break. Morphology 69 Other types of free morphemes are called functional morphemes. Examples are and, but, when, because, on, near, above, in, the, that, it, them.
This set consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. Derivational and inflectional morphemes The set of affixes that make up the category of bound morphemes can also be divided into two types. The area has been renovated with luxury apartments. The large yacht 'Siren' cruising near Guadelupe Island in the Caribbean. The design has altered. The modern design of a motor yacht anchoring off shore.
Super-yacht 'ShadowL' docked in the marina in Nantucket, Massachusetts. Gigantic big and large luxury mega or super motor yacht on the blue ocean. Lady Lara a super yacht in Ibiza Old Town harbour.
The super-yacht Eos - the largest private sailing yacht in the world, moored in Dartmouth in Devon.
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