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Monohybrid Ratio :. Dihybrid cross: A cross between two parents taking into consideration alternative traits of two different characters, e. Dihybrid Ratio :. The genes I A and I B show no dominance over each other they are codominant, i. But these both genes are dominant over the gene I O. Therefore, blood group of a person depends on the type of genes present, e. Homologous chromosomes: A pair of corresponding chromosomes of the same shape and size, one from each parent.
Autosomes and Sex chromosomes : The identical � chromosome pairs are called autosomes. The chromosome pair which is different are called sex chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Molecular Phylogeny: It is the study of evolutionary relationships by comparing DNA of different species. Natural selection : Natural selection is one of the basic mechanisms of evolution, along with mutation, migration and genetic drift.
Natural Ncert 9th And 10th Science Book Sale selection means the environmental conditions prevailing around an organism against which organism adapts itself, grows � and reproduces further. This leads to a change in the composition of genes within a population further causing evolution.
Thus, it can be said that, Natural selection results in adaptation in population to fit their environment better. Thus, natural selection direct evolution in the population of a particular species. Fossils of the information which they provide regarding evolution: Fossils are the remains of ancient life forms, which got preserved somehow in the layers of earth, snow or oil.
Information given by fossils:. Genetic drift: The change in the frequency of some genes in a population which provides diversity without any survival advantage is called genetic drift. The various ways in which individuals with a particular trait may increase in a population : Differences in population are responsible for the diversity such as, colour of eyes, hair, shape of ear lobes.
Evidence of evolution: Errors in DNA copying mutation and sexual reproduction lead to variations which form the basis of evolution.
Characteristics that are common in different kinds of living organisms provide evidence in favour of evolution. Evolution : Evolution can be defined as a naturally occurring slow, continuous and irreversible process of change.
The gradual change of living organisms from pre-existing organisms since the beginning of life is called organic evolution. Whereas, gradual change in elements from one form to another with time is termed as inorganic evolution, i. Inherited traits : are those traits which are passed from one generation to another through specific genes.
Any change in DNA of the germ cells will be passed. Acquired traits : are those traits which are acquired by the organism in its lifetime, e. Speciation : It means the origin of new species from the existing ones.
It happens when different populations of the same species evolve along different lines. How speciation occurs? Complex organs like eye has evolved from rudimentary organs, e.
A change that is useful for one property to start with can become useful later for quite a different function e. But later, they might be useful for flight.
Some heavy birds and reptiles also have feathers but they do not fly. Some very dissimilar looking structures evolve from a common ancestral design, e. It suggests that, if these selections were not done then there would have been only wild cabbage. Homologous organs are organs having same origin and basic structure but they appear different and perform different functions in various organisms, e.
Similarities in basic structure of homologous organs in different organisms, indifferent groups indicate common ancestry. Analogous organs are organs, which look similar because they perform same function, but they do not have same origin and basic structure.
DNA is a chemical in the chromosome which carries the traits in a coded form. Gene is the part of a chromosome which controls a specific biological function.
He concluded that traits are independently inherited Conclusion Round and yellow seeds Round and green seeds Wrinkled and yellow seeds Wrinkled and green seeds Different species use different strategies for this : In some animals the temperature at which fertilized eggs are kept determines whether the developing animals will be males or females.
Some animals like snails can change sex indicating that sex is not genetically determined. In human beings sex of the individual is determined genetically; means genes inherited from the parents decide the sex of the offspring. There are two possibilities : Autosomes: Those chromosomes which do not play any role in sex determination.
If the sperm having X chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X chromosome then the baby will have XX chromosome and it will be female. If the sperm having Y chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X chromosome then the baby will have XY chromosomes and it will be male.
There are the following possibilities First situation: Crows eat these beetles as they can easily pick up red ones in the green bushes There is a colour variation during sexual reproduction and green beetles appears, it reproduces and its population increases. Acquired Traits and Inherited Traits Acquired Traits Inherited Traits i These are the traits which are developed in an individual due to special conditions. Speciation: It means the development of one or more species from an existing species The factors that could lead to rise of a new species are : Gene flow: It means the exchange of genetic material by interbreeding between populations of the same species or between individuals within a population.
Evolutionary relationships can be traced with the help of the following : Homologous organs: Those organs which have the same basic structural design and developmental origin but perform different functions and appearance, for example; Forelimbs of frog, lizard, bird, bat and human beings. The current example of such a process is wild cabbage plant from which different vegetables are generated by artificial selection rather than natural selection Selection of short distance between the leaves has led to formation of cabbage that, we eat.
Selection for arrested flower development had led to broccoli, Selection for sterile flowers had made cauliflower, Selection for swollen-stem had formed kohlrabi. Selection for large leaves had formed leafy vegetable kale, Selection for colored leaves formed red cabbage. To sum up we can say that evolutionary relationships can be established by Study of Homologous organs Study of Analogous organs Study of fossils Changes in DNA during reproduction Evolution versus Progress: Evolution can not be called progress from lower forms to higher forms.
They went forward and backward. Moved in and out of Africa. Sometimes come back to mix with each other. Factors Responsible for Sex Ncert Solutions Class 10th Heredity And Evolution Inc Determination: Environmental: In some animals, the temperature at which the fertilised eggs are kept decides the gender.
Example, in turtle. Genetic: In some animals like humans gender or individual is determined by a pair of chromosomes called sex chromosomes XX � female; XY � male. Acquired Traits: These are the traits which are developed in an individual due to special conditions.
They cannot be transferred to the progeny. They cannot direct evolution, for example, the low weight of starving beetles. Inherited Traits: These are the traits which are passed from one generation to the next.
They get transferred to the progeny. They are helpful in evolution, for example, the colour of eyes and hair. Genetic drift takes place due to: severe changes in the DNA. Evolution and classification. Both evolution and classification are interlinked.
Classification of species is a reflection of their evolutionary relationship. The more characteristics two species have in common the more closely they are related. The more closely they are related, the more recently they have a common ancestor.
Similarities among organisms allow us to group them together and to study their characteristics. These are the organs that have same basic structural plan and origin but different functions. Analogous Organs: These are the organs that have different origin and structural plan but same functions. Example, wings of a bat elongated fingers with skin folds , wings of bird feathery covering along the arm � different structures but same functions.
Fossils: The remains and relics of dead organisms that lived in the remote past. Fossils provide evidence of evolution. Example, a fossil called Archaeopteryx has feathered wings like birds but teeth and tail like reptiles hence suggesting that birds and reptiles had a common ancestor.
Causes of variations: Different combinations of genetic material. Some positive gene mutations. Interaction of genes with environmental changes adaptations. Importance of variations: It forms, the. It causes adaptations due to which organism can easily adjust to its changing environment.
Accumulation of variations forms the basis of evolution. Expressing allele of a gene : Homozygous dominant in capital letters, e. Homozygous: When both alleles of a particular gene are the same, e. F 2 ratio : Phenotypic is 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 and Genotypic. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes of which 22 are similar in male and female and are known as autosomes. The remaining one is sex chromosome which is XY in males and XX in females.
Males produce two types of sperms X and Y, while female produces one type of egg X. If a X type of sperm fertilizers the egg then the sex of baby will be female XX. If Y type of sperm fertilizers the egg then the sex of the baby will be male XY. Information given by fossils: They reveal that the life forms which existed earlier do not exist today which indicate that the living forms are ever changing evolving.
They are used to guess the time when a particular organism existed on earth. Hence, they are not very closely related in evolutionary term; rather are like distant relatives. Can the wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bat be considered homologous organs?
Wings of a butterfly are composed of chitinous membrane, while wings of a bat are composed of bony skeleton. Hence, these are not homologous organs rather analogous organs. What are fossils? What do they tell us about the process of evolution?
The preserved remains of animals or plants or other organisms from the distant past are called fossils. These fossils tell us about many extinct animals and also give insights into how the evolution could have taken place. Why are human beings who look so different from each other in terms of size, colour and looks said to belong to the same species?
In spite of wide differences in size, colour and looks, human beings can interbreed. Hence, all of them are kept under one species. If complexity of body design is the criterion, then chimpanzee is obviously better than bacteria.
But if ability of survival in almost all kinds of habitat is a criterion then bacteria are far ahead than any other group of organisms. A Mendelian experiment consisted of breeding tall pea plants bearing violet flowers with short pea plants bearing white flowers.
The progeny all bore violet flowers but almost half of them were short. In evolutionary terms, we have more in common with a A Chinese school-boy. A study found that children with light-coloured eyes are likely to have parents with light-coloured eyes. On this basis, can we say anything about whether the light eye colour trait is dominant or recessive?
No, since two copies of traits are inherited from parents, one from the mother and the other from the father. Unless we know the nature of these two variants of traits we cannot tell which is dominant and which is recessive. Recessive traits appear when both the parents contribute recessive allele.
From this statement we can only presume are that both parents are contributing recessive allele. How are the areas of study- evolution and classification interlinked? When we classify organism we look for similarities Ncert Solutions Class 10th Heredity And Evolution Network among organism which allows us to group them. Based on these principles we can work out the evolutionary relationship to the species. Explain the terms analogous and homologous organs with examples. Analogous organs: Such organs which perform a similar function but are different in structure and origin.
Example- Wings of birds and wings of insects. Homologous organs: Such organs which may have different functions but similar structure and origin. Example- forearm of frog, lizard and bird. Outline a project which aims to find the dominant coat colour in dogs. Explain the importance of fossils in deciding evolutionary relationship. What evidence do we have for the origin of life from inanimate matter? The evidence was given by Stanley L.
Miller and Harold C. Urey in Explain how sexual reproduction gives rise to more viable variations than asexual reproduction. How does this affect the evolution of those organisms that reproduce sexually? During meiosis, crossing over between fragments of homologous chromosomes occurs which brings about new gene combinations to be transferred to new generation. Crossing over is the fundamental cause of origin of variations in sexually reproducing organisms.
Asexual reproduction does not involve meiosis and crossing over because of one parent lineage. Hence, only minute variations may occur in them due to mutation. The variations caused by crossing over in sexually reproducing organisms are subjected to the selection process. Natural selection selects those variations which have more adaptive value and guide them towards evolution of new species. In this way, sexual reproduction gives rise to more viable variations for evolution.
During the formation of gametes as a result of reductional division meiosis , sperms and eggs receive only half of the genetic material of parent cell and thus become haploid. When fertilization occurs, zygote is formed, which is diploid 2n. In this way, both male and female parents contribute exactly equal amount of genetic material to the offspring.
Only variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism will survive in a population. Do you agree with this statement? The variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism are definitely of more survival value because natural selection prefers these variations.
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