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Maritime history is the study of human interaction with and activity at sea. It covers a broad thematic element of history that often uses a global approach, although national and regional histories remain predominant. As an academic subject, it often crosses the boundaries of standard disciplines , focusing on understanding humankind's various relationships to the oceans , seas , and major waterways of the globe.
Nautical history records and interprets past events involving ships, shipping, navigation, and seafarers. Maritime history is the broad overarching subject that includes fishing , whaling , international maritime law , naval history , the history of ships , ship design, shipbuilding , the history of navigation , the history of the various maritime-related sciences oceanography , cartography , hydrography , etc.
Historians from many lands have published monographs, popular and scholarly articles, and collections of archival resources. A leading journal is International Journal of Maritime History , a fully refereed scholarly journal published twice a year by the International Maritime Economic History Association. Based in Canada with an international editorial board, it explores the maritime dimensions of economic, social, cultural, and environmental history.
It contains over articles by scholars and runs pages. Dear and Peter Kemp, eds. Typically, studies of merchant shipping and of defensive navies are seen as separate fields. Inland waterways are included within 'maritime history,' especially inland seas such as the Great Lakes of North America , and major navigable rivers and canals worldwide. One approach to maritime history writing has been nicknamed 'rivet counting' because of a focus on the minutiae of the vessel.
But revisionist scholars are creating new turns in the study of maritime history. This includes a posts turn towards the study of human users of ships which involves sociology, cultural geography, gender studies and narrative studies ; [7] and post turn towards seeing sea travel as part of the wider history of transport and mobilities.
Throughout history sailing has been instrumental in the development of civilization, affording humanity greater mobility than travel over land, whether for trade, transport or warfare, and the capacity for fishing. The earliest representation of a ship under sail appears on a painted disc found in Kuwait dating to the late 5th millennium BC. In the time before ancient maritime history , the first boats are presumed to have been dugout canoes , developed independently by various Stone Age populations, and used for coastal fishing and travel.
The Indigenous of the Pacific Northwest are very skilled at crafting wood. Best known for totem poles up to 80 feet 24 m tall, they also construct dugout canoes over 60 feet 18 m long for everyday use and ceremonial purposes.
Austronesians were the first humans to invent oceangoing sailing technologies, namely the catamaran , the outrigger ship , and the crab claw sail. This allowed them to colonize a large part of the Indo-Pacific region from to BC during the Austronesian expansion.
The Ancient Egyptians had knowledge of sail construction. Some current historians believe Herodotus on this point, even though Herodotus himself was in disbelief that the Phoenicians had accomplished the act.
Introducing sailing technologies to these regions. They also facilitated an exchange of cultivated crop plants, introducing Pacific coconuts, bananas, and sugarcane to the Indian subcontinent, some of which eventually reached Europe via overland Persian and Arab traders. It may also have been the "kolandiaphonta" known by the Greeks. It has masts and able to sail against the wind due to the usage of tanja sails. These ships reaching as far as Madagascar by ca.
Northern European Vikings also developed oceangoing vessels and depended heavily upon them for travel and population movements prior to AD, with the oldest known examples being longships dated to around AD from the Nydam Boat site. China started building sea-going ships in the 10th century during the Song Dynasty.
Chinese seagoing ship is based on Austronesian ship designs which have been trading with the Eastern Han dynasty since the 2nd century AD. Water was the cheapest and usually the only way to transport goods in bulk over long distances. In addition, it was the safest way to transport commodities. Mechanical engineer Ma Jun c. The mariner's astrolabe was the chief tool of Celestial navigation in early modern maritime history.
This scaled down version of the instrument used by astronomers served as a navigational aid to measure latitude at sea, and was employed by Portuguese sailors no later than The precise date of the discovery of the magnetic needle compass is undetermined, but the earliest attestation of the device for navigation was in the Dream Pool Essays by Shen Kuo The earliest iterations of the compass consisted of a floating, magnetized lodestone needle that spun around in a water filled bowl until it reached alignment with Earth's magnetic poles.
The first use of a magnetized needle for seafaring navigation in Europe was written of by Alexander Neckham , circa AD. Around AD, the pivot-needle dry-box compass was invented in Europe, its cardinal direction pointed north, similar to the modern-day mariners compass. There was also the addition of the compass-card in Europe, which was later adopted by the Chinese through contact with Japanese pirates in the 16th century. The oldest known map is dated back to 12, B.
This is believed to have begun in the region of the middle east. Countries that were predominantly Christian during the Middle Ages placed east at the top of the maps in part due to Genesis,"the lord god planted a garden toward the east in Eden". The portolan was the first map that labeled North at the top and was drawn proportionate to size. Landmarks were drawn with great detail.
Various ships were in use during the Middle Ages. Jong , a type of large sailing ship from Nusantara , was built using wooden dowels without iron nails and multiple planks to endure heavy seas. Junk vessels employed mat and batten style sails that could be raised and lowered in segments, as well varying angles. The ships were clinker-built , utilizing overlapping wooden strakes. The knaar , a relative of the longship, was a type of cargo vessel. It differed from the longship in that it was larger and relied solely on its square rigged sail for propulsion.
The cog was a design which is believed to have evolved from or at least been influenced by the longship, and was in wide use by the 12th century. It too used the clinker method of construction.
The caravel was a ship invented in Islamic Iberia and used in the Mediterranean from the 13th century. It could be either square rigged Caravela Redonda or lateen rigged Caravela Latina. The carrack was another type of ship invented in the Mediterranean in the 15th century. It was a larger vessel than the caravel. The Arab Empire maintained and expanded a wide trade network across parts of Asia , Africa and Europe. This helped establish the Arab Empire including the Rashidun , Umayyad , Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 8thth centuries according to the political scientist John M.
Apart from the Nile , Tigris and Euphrates , navigable rivers in the Islamic regions were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. Islamic geography and navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of a magnetic compass and a rudimentary instrument known as a kamal , used for celestial navigation and for measuring the altitudes and latitudes of the stars.
When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across oceans rather than skirt along the coast. According to the political scientist John M. Hobson, the origins of the caravel ship, used for long-distance travel by the Spanish and Portuguese since the 15th century, date back to the qarib used by Andalusian explorers by the 13th century.
Control of sea routes dictated the political and military power of the Islamic nation. Maritime trade was used to link the vast territories that spanned the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean. The Arabs were among the first to sail the Indian Ocean. Sea trade enabled the distribution of food and supplies to feed entire populations in the middle east.
Long distance sea trade imported raw materials for building, luxury goods for the wealthy, and new inventions. The Hanseatic League was an alliance of trading guilds that established and maintained a trade monopoly over the Baltic Sea, to a certain extent the North Sea, and most of Northern Europe for a time in the Late Middle Ages and the early modern period, between the 13th and 17th centuries.
Exploratory trading adventures, raids and piracy had occurred earlier throughout the Baltic see Vikings � the sailors of Gotland sailed up rivers as far away as Novgorod , for example � but the scale of international economy in the Baltic area remained insignificant before the growth of the Hanseatic League.
Visby , one of the midwives of the Hanseatic league in , declined to become a member. Visby dominated trade in the Baltic before the Hanseatic league, and with its monopolistic ideology, suppressed the Gotlandic free-trade competition. By the late 16th century, the League imploded and could no longer deal with its own internal struggles, the social and political changes that accompanied the Reformation , the rise of Dutch and English merchants, and the incursion of the Ottoman Turks upon its trade routes and upon the Holy Roman Empire itself.
During the Age of the Ajuran , the Somali sultanates and republics of Merca , Mogadishu , Barawa , Hobyo and their respective ports flourished. They had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia , India , Venetia , [40] Persia , Egypt , Portugal and as far away as China.
In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in what is modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices , for which they in return received gold , wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat , wheat , barley , horses , and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.
In the early modern period, successor states of the Adal and Ajuran empires began to flourish in Somalia who continued the seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires. The rise of the 19th century Gobroon Dynasty in particular saw a rebirth in Somali maritime enterprise. During this period, the Somali agricultural output to Arabian markets was so great that the coast of Somalia came to be known as the Grain Coast of Yemen and Oman.
The Age of Discovery was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe.
Historians often refer to the 'Age of Discovery' [43] [44] as the pioneer Portuguese and later Spanish long-distance maritime travels in search of alternative trade routes to " the East Indies ", moved by the trade of gold , silver and spices. Christopher Columbus was a navigator and maritime explorer who is one of several historical figures credited as the discoverer of the Americas. It is generally believed that he was born in Genoa , although other theories and possibilities exist.
Columbus' voyages across the Atlantic Ocean began a European effort at exploration and colonization of the Western Hemisphere. While history places great significance on his first voyage of , he did not actually reach the mainland until his third voyage in Likewise, he was not the earliest European explorer to reach the Americas, as there are accounts of European transatlantic contact prior to Nevertheless, Columbus's voyage came at a critical time of growing national imperialism and economic competition between developing nation states seeking wealth from the establishment of trade routes and colonies.
Therefore, the period before is known as Pre-Columbian. John Cabot was a Genoese navigator and explorer commonly credited as one of the first early modern Europeans to land on the North American mainland aboard the Matthew in John Cabot and perhaps Sebastian, sailing from Bristol , took their small fleet along the coasts of a "New Found Land".
There is much controversy over where exactly Cabot landed, but two likely locations that are often suggested are Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Cabot and his crew including perhaps Sebastian mistook this place for China, without finding the passage to the east they were looking for.
Some scholars maintain that the name America comes from Richard Amerik , a Bristol merchant and customs officer, who is claimed on very slender evidence to have helped finance the Cabot voyages. Peter Martyr d'Anghiera was an Italian -born historian of Spain and of the discoveries of her representatives during the Age of Exploration.
He wrote the first accounts of explorations in Central and South America in a series of letters and reports, grouped in the original Latin publications of � into sets of ten chapters called "decades.
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