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The history of navigation is the history of seafaring , the art of directing vessels upon the open sea through the establishment of its position and course by means of traditional practice, geometry, astronomy, or special instruments.
Navigation in the Indo-Pacific began with the maritime migrations of the Austronesians from Taiwan who spread southwards into Island Southeast Asia and Island Melanesia during a period between to BC. Their first long-distance voyaging was the colonization of Micronesia from the Philippines at around BC. By about BC their descendants had spread more than 6, kilometers across the Pacific, reaching Tonga and Samoa. In this region, a distinctive Polynesian culture developed.
Polynesian navigators used a range of tools and methods, including observation of birds, star navigation , and use of waves and swells to detect nearby land. Songs, mythological stories, and star charts were used to help people remember important navigational information.
Sailors navigating in the Mediterranean made use of several techniques to determine their location, including staying in sight of land and understanding of the winds and their tendencies.
Minoans of Crete are an example of an early Western civilization that used celestial navigation. Their palaces and mountaintop sanctuaries exhibit architectural features that align with the rising sun on the equinoxes , as well as the rising and setting of particular stars.
The sailor replies with his description of the use of circumpolar stars to navigate by. The voyage of the Greek navigator Pytheas of Massalia is a particularly notable example of a very long, early voyage. Pytheas also introduced the idea of distant " Thule " to the geographic imagination and his account is the earliest to state that the moon is the cause of the tides.
Nearchos 's celebrated voyage from India to Susa after Alexander 's expedition in India is preserved in Arrian 's account, the Indica. Nautical charts and textual descriptions known as sailing directions have been in use in one form or another since the sixth century BC. In , the Antikythera mechanism was recovered from Antikythera wreck.
This mechanism was built around 1st century BC. The Phoenicians and their successors, the Carthaginians , were particularly adept sailors and learned to voyage further and further away from the coast in order to reach destinations faster. One tool that helped them was the sounding weight. This tool was bell shaped, made from stone or lead, with tallow inside attached to a very long rope.
When out to sea, sailors could lower the sounding weight in order to determine how deep the waters were, and therefore estimate how far they were from land. Also, the tallow picked up sediments from the bottom which expert sailors could examine to determine exactly where they were.
There is general consensus that the expedition reached at least as far as Senegal. In the South China Sea and Indian Ocean, a navigator could take advantage of the fairly constant monsoon winds to judge direction. He also made reference to monsoon trade between the islands or archipelago , which took a month and a few days in a large po. The invention of these types of sail made sailing around the western coast of Africa possible, because of their ability to sail against the wind.
Chinese people learned junk rig from Malay people visiting their southern coast. Also brought with them was the Ma'anyan dayak people, as labourer and slaves.
The Arab Empire significantly contributed to navigation , and had trade networks extending from the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea in the west to the Indian Ocean and China Sea in the east, [31] Apart from the Nile , Tigris and Euphrates , navigable rivers in the Islamic regions were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important.
Islamic geography and navigational sciences made use of a magnetic compass and a rudimentary instrument known as a kamal , used for celestial navigation and for measuring the altitudes and latitudes of the stars. The kamal itself was simple to construct.
It was a rectangular piece of either bone or wood which had a string with 9 consecutive knots attached to it. Another instrument available, developed by the Arabs as well, was the quadrant. Also a celestial navigation device, it was originally developed for astronomy and later transitioned to navigation. The origins of the caravel ship, developed and used for long-distance travel by the Portuguese, and later by the rest of Iberians, since the 15th century, also date back to the qarib used by Andalusian explorers by the 13th century.
The sea lanes between India and neighboring lands were the usual form of trade for many centuries, and are responsible for the widespread influence of Indian culture to the societies of Southeast Asia.
Vikings used polarization and the Sunstone to allow navigation of their ships by locating the Sun even in a completely overcast sky. This special mineral was talked about in several 13th � 14th-century written sources in Iceland , some centuries after the carbon-dated, earlyth-century Norse settlement of L'Anse aux Meadows in northernmost Newfoundland had been briefly established. In China between and , the magnetic compass was being developed and applied to navigation. The true mariner's compass using a pivoting needle in a dry box was invented in Europe no later than Nautical charts called portolan charts began to appear in Italy at the end of the 13th century.
The commercial activities of Portugal in the early 15th century marked an epoch of distinct progress in practical navigation for Europeans.
Combined with the empirical observations gathered in oceanic seafaring, mapping winds and currents, Portuguese explorers took the lead in the long distance oceanic navigation, [40] opening later, at the beginning of the 16th century, a network of ocean routes covering the Atlantic, the Indian and the western Pacific oceans, from the North Atlantic and South America , to Japan and Southeast Asia. The Portuguese campaign of Atlantic navigation is one the earliest examples of a systematic scientific large project, sustained over many decades.
This program of study recruited several men of exceptional ability, had a well-defined set of objectives, and was open to experimental confirmation through the success or otherwise of subsequent navigations. The main problem in navigating, by sail alone, back from the south of the Canary Islands or south of Boujdour , is due to the change in the regime of winds and currents: the North Atlantic gyre and the Equatorial counter current [41] will push south along the northwest bulge of Africa, while the uncertain winds where the Northeast trades meet the Southeast trades the doldrums [42] leave a sailing ship to the mercy of the currents.
Together, prevalent current and wind make northwards progress very difficult or impossible. In this context, the Portuguese discovered the two large volta do mar meaning literally turn of the sea but also return from the sea currents and trade winds of North and of South Atlantic ocean approximately in the first half and in the late 15th century respectively , that paved the way to reach the New World and return to Europe, as well as to circumnavigate Africa in western open sea, in future voyages of discovery, avoiding contrary winds and currents.
In the ' Esmeraldo 's introduction:. The repositories for the observations made were the ' Roteiros ' or maritime route-maps. The earliest Roteiro known is part of a collection of several manuscripts by Valentim Fernandes with the coast up to the delta of the Niger river in present day Nigeria, followed by the ' Esmeraldo The extent of the explorations undertaken is again reported in the ' Esmeraldo Furthermore, there were systematic expeditions pushing into the western Northern Atlantic Teive, ; Vogado, ; Teles, ; Ulmo, [52] The documents relating to the supplying of ships, and the ordering of sun declination tables for the southern Atlantic for as early as , [53] all suggest a well planned and systematic activity.
The most significant consequence of this systematised knowledge was the negotiation of the Treaty of Tordesillas in , moving the line of demarcation leagues to the west from to leagues west of the Azores with the consequence of affirming the Portuguese claim to Brazil and its dominance of the Atlantic.
By the early 16th century there were regular voyages between Lisbon and the Indic. The knowledge of the Atlantic developed by accretion, with the systematic exploration moving into the Indic.
Nunes credibility rests on being personally involved in the instruction of pilots and senior seafarers from onwards. Joao de Castro carried out a series of experiments that succeeded in detecting phenomena, in particular related to magnetism and the magnetic needle on board. It should be assumed that such knowledge to Pedro Nunes, of course the direct inspiration of all the observations he has done in his travels.
When on August 5, , D. His comments are the most important record of values of magnetic declination in the Atlantic and Indian oceans, in the sixteenth century, and useful for the study of terrestrial magnetism. It was one of the personalities of this century European experimental science, linking the importance of this study with the sailing. King John II of Portugal continued this effort, forming a committee on navigation.
He published in the printing press of Leiria in , the book Biur Luhoth , or in Latin Almanach Perpetuum , which was soon translated into Latin and Spanish.
Nevertheless, the Portuguese had to hire local pilots in the Indian Ocean for several decades to guide their ships. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Crown of Castile and then the "unified" Crown of Spain was also in the vanguard of European global exploration and colonial expansion. The Spanish Crown opened trade routes across the oceans, specially the transatlantic expeditions of Christopher Columbus on behalf of Castile, from The Crown of Castile, under Charles I of Spain , also sponsored the first expedition of world circumnavigation in The compass, a cross-staff or astrolabe, a method to correct for the altitude of Polaris and rudimentary nautical charts were all the tools available to a navigator at the time of Christopher Columbus.
Prior to , no method of judging the ship's speed was mentioned that was more advanced than observing the size of the vessel's bow wave or the passage of sea foam or various floating objects.
Accurate time-keeping is necessary for the determination of longitude. Continuous accumulation of navigational data, along with increased exploration and trade, led to increased production of volumes through the Middle Ages. In , Pedro Nunes published his Tratado da Sphera. In this book he included two original treatises about questions of navigation. For the first time the subject was approached using mathematical tools.
This publication gave rise to a new scientific discipline: "theoretical or scientific navigation". In , Pedro de Medina published the influential Arte de navegar. The book was translated into French, Italian, Dutch and English.
In , Gerardus Mercator published for the first time a world map in such a cartographic projection that constant-rhumb trajectories were plotted as straight lines.
This Mercator projection would be widely used for nautical charts from the 18th century onward. In , John Davis published an page pamphlet called The Seaman's Secrets which, among other things describes great circle sailing.
In , Edward Wright published Certaine Errors in Navigation , which translated the work of Pedro Nunes explaining the mathematical basis of the Mercator projection , [66] with calculated mathematical tables which made it possible to use in practice. The book made clear why only with this projection would a constant bearing correspond to a straight line on a chart.
It also analysed other sources of error, including the risk of parallax errors with some instruments; and faulty estimates of latitude and longitude on contemporary charts. The map prominently displays the Queen Elizabeth I Privy Seal; the only one of her realm to Navigation Lights For Boats Wikipedia 10 carry her private seal. The Molyneux globe is the only other cartography with her Privy Seal. Both identify Nova Albion , the land Captain Francis Drake claimed for his Queen during his circumnavigation , above the 40th parallel.
In , Pierre Vernier described his newly invented quadrant that was accurate to one minute of arc. In , Henry Gellibrand published an account of yearly change in magnetic variation. In , using a specially built astronomical sextant with a 5-foot radius, Richard Norwood measured the length of a nautical mile with chains. Norwood is also credited with the discovery of magnetic dip 59 years earlier, in In the British Commissioners for the discovery of longitude at sea came into prominence.
Isaac Newton invented a reflecting quadrant around Due to this time lapse, credit for the invention has often been given instead to John Hadley and Thomas Godfrey. The octant eventually replaced earlier cross-staffs and Davis quadrants , [69] and had the immediate effect of making latitude calculations much more accurate.
A highly important breakthrough for the accurate determination of longitude came with the invention of the marine chronometer. The longitude prize offer for a method of determining longitude at sea, was won by John Harrison , a Yorkshire carpenter. He submitted a project in , and in completed a clock based on a pair of counter-oscillating weighted beams connected by springs whose motion was not influenced by gravity or the motion of a ship. His first two sea timepieces H1 and H2 completed in used this system, but he realised that they had a fundamental sensitivity to centrifugal force , which meant that they could never be accurate enough at sea.
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