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Due date of bill was a public holiday and the bill was met as per the provisions of Icse Foundation Mathematics Class 10 Solutions Youtube Negotiable Instrument Act. Journalise the above transactions in the books of A and B. Manju accepted Vishal's draft and handed over the same to Vishal after acceptance. On the due date Manju met her acceptance. Journalise the above transactions in the books of Vishal and Manju. Make Journal entries in the books of both the parties. Question 7. On 18th January, , A endorsed the bill to his creditor C.
The bill was duly met on the date of maturity. Pass Journal entries in the books of A, B and C. A retains the bill till due date and on due date sends the bill to the Banker for collection. In due course, A receives the information from the Bank that the bill has been duly met. Pass Journal Entries in the books of A and B. The first bill was retained by Kusum till its maturity. All the bills were met by Pushpa.
Journalise the above transactions in the books of Kusum and Pushpa. Y meets the bill on its due date. Show what entries would be passed in the books of X and Y under each of the following circumstances:. For all the sales X drew bills on Y payable after 60 days.
Bill drawn on Jan. The bill drawn on Jan. On March 12, X sent the bill drawn on Jan. All the bills were met by Y on due dates. Pass necessary journal entries in the books of X and Y and prepare Y ' s account in the books of X and X 's account in the books of Y. Show Journal entries in the books of Ajay and Balbir. Y accepted the bill and returned it to X. Fifteen days later Y pays the amount due to X. Pass Journal entries in the books of both the parties. To this B is agreeable. The bill is met on maturity.
On the due date, it was dishonoured. Make Journal entries of these transactions in the books of X and Y. The second bill is duly met on maturity. On 4th April, , B accepts a new bill at two months for the amount then due to A together with interest at 12 per cent per annum. Make Journal entries to record these transactions in the books of A and B. On 21st Sept. On maturity, the bill was dishonoured. It was duly met on maturity.
Pass entries in the books of Radhika. Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Asha and Nisha. He drew upon B a bill of exchange for the same amount payable after 1 month. B accepted the bill and sent it back to A. The new bill was payable after 1 month.
One week before the maturity of the second bill B requested A to cancel the second bill. A agreed to B's request. The third bill was payable after one month. B met the third bill on its maturity. Record the necessary journal entries in the books of A and B and also prepare B's account in the books of A and A's account in the books of B.
Pass entries in the books of drawer and drawee. Question 21 B. Mohan endorsed the bill to Rakesh. The bill was dishonoured on the due date. Show Journal entries in the books of Ravi, Mohan and Rakesh. On the same date C informed B about the dishonour of the bill. A settled B 's claim by cheque for the same amount. Record the necessary journal entries in the books of A, B and C for the above transactions and prepare A 's and C 's accounts in the books of B, B 's account in the books of A and also B 's account in the books of C.
Mohan agreed to it. Mohan immediately took the bill from Raja by making the payment to him and then drew upon Naresh a new bill for 30 days which was duly met by Naresh on due date. Pass necessary entries in the books of Mohan. The bill was payable after 60 days. On April 28, B sent the bill to his bank for collection.
The bill was duly presented by the bank. Record the necessary journal entries for the above transactions in the books of A and B. On the date of the maturity the bill was duly presented for payment. Vimal dishonoured the bill. Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Kamal and Vimal when : i The bill was retained by Kamal till the date of its maturity.
The bill was duly accepted and returned by Y. Pass entries in the following cases: i If drawer retains the bill with him till due date. A endorsed the bill to C. C endorsed it to his creditor D. Show Journal entries in the books of all the parties to record these transactions. On 1st Jan. The bills were duly accepted by Harish. The first bill was endorsed by Satish to his creditor Rajnish on 3rd Jan. The second bill was discounted on 15th Jan. The fourth bill was duly met on maturity.
Give Journal entries in the books of Satish and Harish. On the same date, Barun drew upon Arun a bill for the amount at 2 months and Arun accepted the same. The second bill was duly met on the due date.
Give journal entries to record the above transactions in the books of Barun. Varun accepted the bill and returned the same to Darshan.
On the due date the bill was met by Varun. Record the necessary Journal entries in the books of Darshan and Varun in the following circumstances:. When the bill was endorsed immediately by Darshan in favour of his creditor Suresh.
When three days before its maturity, the bill was sent by Darshan to his bank for collection. Neha agreed to the request of Muskan and Muskan retired the bill under the agreed rate of rebate. Journalise the above transactions in the books of Neha and Muskan. Journalise the above in the books of Leena and Meena. On the date of maturity the bill was duly presented for payment.
Anita dishonoured the bill. Abdulla sold goods to Tahir on Jan. He drew a bill of exchange for the same amount on Tahir for 45 days.
On the same date Tahir accepted the bill and returned it to Abdulla. On the due date Abdulla presented the bill to Tahir which was dishonoured.
Record the necessary journal entries in the books of Abdulla and Tahir. Also prepare Tahir's account in the books of Abdulla and Abdulla's account in the books of Tahir. X sold goods to Y on 1. The maturity date of the bill was a non business day holiday , therefore, X had to present the bill as per the provisions of the Indian Instruments Act, Journalise the above transactions in the books of X and Y and prepare Y's account in the books of X and X's account in the books of Y. Here the due date is May 04, which is a holiday then the due date is 03 May, If due date falls on Public holiday, then due date is preceding date.
A agrees to the proposal. On the due date the bill was duly honoured by B. Well other districts are also moving along the same path. This has resulted in a general rise of the groundwater level by almost 6 metres and a 33 percent increase in the forest cover in the area. Five rivers that used to go dry immediately following the monsoon have now become perennial, such as the River Arvari, has come alive. Its main feature is a very long m earthen embankment built across the lower hill slopes lying below uplands.
Sluices and spillways in the area allow excess water to drain off to the catchment. The Khadin system is based on the principle of harvesting rainwater on farmland and subsequent use of this water-saturated land for crop production. First designed by the Paliwal Brahmins of Jaisalmer, Western Rajasthan in the 15th century, this system has great similarity with the irrigation methods of the people of Ur present Iraq around BC and later of the Nabateans in the Middle East.
A similar system is also reported to have been practiced 4, years ago in the Negev desert, and in southwestern Colorado years ago.
In Churu, Bikaner, and Sikar of the state people have learnt to harvest rain water in Kunds or Kundis. What are Kunds or Kundis? Dome shaped structures over an underground tank surrounded with an artificially paved catchment sloping towards the centre is called as Kund or Kundis.
Traditionally, these tanks were made up of lime, which acted as disinfectant but currently scarcity and demand hassled people to construct Kunds of cement. Panikheti- the conservation of water on terraces. The system of rice cultivation on terraces developed by the Angami and Chakesang tribes of Nagaland state of the North- eastern India is called a Panikheti.
Rather, Panikheti is the term applied to the beautiful rice terraces in the North-eastern Hill Region of India. In this system of farming on terraces, water is supplied to plants by channels that carry water from streams.
About 10 to 15 cm of water level is maintained in the fields and rest of the water is allowed to flow down to the lower terraces. This traditional practice ensures that there is no wastage of water while protecting the rights of farmers over the use of water.
They play very important roles in the economy of a nation and its people. Still, the marine and coastal ecosystems are under severe stress due to human activities. Hence, the conservation of these resources is very important, today.
Major Stresses on Marine and Coastal Ecosystems Our marine and coastal ecosystems are under heavy stress due to various types of human activities.
Pollution of marine water due to disposal of municipal, industrial, chemical and toxic wastes in the sea water. Dumping of various biodegradable and non- biodegradable wastes including plastics and torn fishing nets etc. Over exploitation of living marine resources. Heavy sedimentation of sea water. Global climatic and atmospheric changes induced by human activities leading to atmospheric pollution.
Introduction of exotic species, in a habitat, for example introduction of Jelly fish in the black sea. Oil spills on water surface from ships and natural sources. Eutrophication : A condition of enrichment of water bodies with nutrients, is called as Eutrophication. It encourages growth of aquatic plants who utilize most of the oxygen dissoved in water. It leads to death of aquatic animals.
Increasing pressure on terrestrial and marine natural resources cause coastal degradation. Dumping of wastes in coastal areas intoxicate the coastal and estuarine waters. Population growth, increasing urbanisation, industrialization and tourism in coastal areas damage coastal ecosystems. Pollution of coastal water by industrial wastes is damaging coastal and estuarine ecosystems. Deaths of sea birds due to intoxication of sea-water by pesticides DDT in particular and outbreak of Mina Mata disease in Japan from mercury contaminated seafood are two examples of serious pollutions of coastal ecosystems.
Exploitation of living resources from coastal areas is causing excessive pressures on coastal ecosystems. Contamination of sea water with sewage is causing nutrient enrichment of coastal ecosystems. It is further leading to a serious condition of eutrophication. The sewage discharge into sea water has increased dramatically in the past three decades.
Several enclosed or semi-enclosed seas like the Black Sea are experiencing serious problem of eutrophication. The contamination of coastal water by sewage borne pathogens is causing serious public health problems.
Port dredging, land filling, coastal solid waste dumps, coastal constructions, beech and reef-mining, damage from tourism and recreation are causing serious impacts on these ecosystems. Destruction of mangrove vegetation has put severe stresses on these ecosystems. Mangroves are highly productive but extremely sensitive and fragile. Conservation and Management of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems According to a report of the UNEP, the degradation of marine and coastal ecosystems has intensified since last 30 years.
The progress in the protection of these ecosystems has so far remained very slow. Fortunately, there is an emerging concern in some parts of the globe that the loss of living marine resources is as dangerous to the health of marine and coastal ecosystems as marine pollution. Major strategies of conservation and management of marine and coastal ecosystems are described below. India has a coastline of over 7, km. It has been authorised to explore about , sq km of marine area in the Indian Ocean by Seabed Authority which offers immense scope for exploration and study of ocean resources.
An Ocean Policy Statement was brought out in by this department. Some of the features of this policy are- Exploratory survey; Assessment and sustainable utilization of ocean resources; Technical advances geared to the utilisation and preservation of the marine and coastal ecosystems; Integrated Coastal and Marine area Development; and Coastal Community Development.
These vessels are meant for the monitoring of marine and coastal pollutions for Integrated Coastal and Marine area Management. This project has two major components- a Capacity building, and b Development of infra structure for research and development. Importance of Coral Reefs Ridge or elevated part of a relatively shallow area of the sea floor approaching the surface of the sea is called as coral reef.
Corals are massive wave resistant structures built largely by coral and consisting of skeletal and chemically precipitated material. These are made by polyps i. There are basically three types of coral reefs- Fringing reefs, Barrier reefs and Atoll. The barrier reefs develop away from the shoreline and form a channel or lagoon between the reef and the shore.
The atolls are islands made of corals. The health of coral reefs has been declining over the past several decades. The pollution of sea water, destructive fishing practices, algal blooms, and eutrophication, coral diseases and coral bleaching are some serious causes of depletion of coral reefs.
The whitening of coral colonies due to the loss of symbiotic zooxanthellae from the tissues of polyps is called as Coral Bleaching.
Zooxanthellae are unicellular algae that provide colour to corals. They also provide food to corals and their deaths lead to breakdown of the symbiotic relationship between them.
This breakdown of symbiotic relationship causes starvation and resultant deaths of coral polyps. This condition exposes the white calcium carbonate skeletons of the coral colony. There are a number of stresses or environmental changes that may cause bleaching. These causes include disease, excess shade, increased levels of ultraviolet radiation, sedimentation, pollution, salinity changes, and increased temperatures.
The nutrients might increase the number of zooxanthellae in the coral, but it is possible that the nutrient overload increases the susceptibility of coral to diseases. When put into the trash, their toxic chemicals, such as mercury or cadmium, will leach into the soil and water; and water finally reaches to the sea.
Anyone may either accept the costs of waste treatment before it is discharged into waterways, or accept environmental impacts. Anyone can no longer simply assume that the sea is the cheapest and most effective place to dispose of sewage, urban, agricultural and industrial waste. The coral reefs are most complex ecosystems found on the earth.
These are found in great concentrations between 4 degrees north and south latitudes in western portions of all major oceans. They generally extend to about 30 degrees north and south of the equator. They develop at a temperature not less than 20 degree Celsius.
This is the reason why they are not found in very cold seas. These support fish production up to 2. They also provide food to different types of sea animals like star fish. The aims of the project were � 1. Regeneration and replenishment of forests; 2. Regeneration of water bodies; 3. Reduction of Soil Erosion through afforestation; 4. Controlled grazing. The GAREMA has been the centre piece of the strategy of the project which addressed the collective management of watersheds. DYKES : Long and thick walls built underground in the bed of some stream to stop Flooding on to a low area of land or checking the sub- surface flow of Water.
What is the percentage of degradation of land through overgrazing? How much of the tropical forests were destroyed during ? What is the full form of the abbreviation UNEP? Name any one traditional Indian practice of conservation of water. Make a mention of any one technology applied for recharging the ground water.
What do you mean by Spoilage of Landscape? How are landscapes spoilt? Mention any two causes of the spoilage of landscape. State any two needs for adopting control measures to check the spoilage of landscape. ICSE specimen Question 4.
List any two control measures to check the spoilage of landscape. ICSE specimen Question 5. How do industries contribute to the spoilage of land? Mention any two natural causes of land degradation. ICSE; 7. What is desertification? What are its consequences? Define the term Land Reclamation.
How is it useful to mankind? Mention any two causes of desertification. How can the desertification be controlled? How are soil erosion and spoilage of landscape inter-related? ICSE ii State two advantages of planning land-use.
ICSE Why is water called as the elixir of life? Why is there an urgent need to understand the limit of our water resources? Which place is known as the wettest place on earth but still the same faces severe drought-conditions? Mention reasons behind this tragedy.
Name the causes that have accelerated the fresh water crisis in India. How is agriculture supposed to be a great exploiter of fresh water? What does the management of water mean? What is a Watershed? Where is the operation of watershed ideal? Why is the management of watershed considered to be very important? Mention any two objectives of watershed management. What role does water harvesting play in water conservation?
What are Johads? State any two advantages of such an irrigation system. What are Gully Plugs? Where are they used? What are Kunds or Kundis, and Zings? Briefly explain the method of water harvesting in Mizoram. What is rain water harvesting? Mention any two methods of rain water harvesting? List any two advantages of rain water harvesting. What are percolation pits? ICSE- Mention any two ways through which oceans are useful to us. ICSE � How are the ocean-resources threatened?
What is meant by the term coastal zone? What is a coral reef? Give one example of it. State the importance of coral reefs in a marine biome. Name two human activities which are having adverse impacts on coral reefs. Where do coral reef ecosystems occur in India? Why are coral reefs important? What is meant by Panikheti? Why are the marine ecosystems under threat? Define Eutrophication. Name the institute in India where research on coral reefs is being conducted. What is its contribution to the coral reef- ecosystems?
Explain briefly various factors that lead to the spoilage of landscape. What are the steps that can be taken to check the spoilage of landscape? Describe briefly the man-made causes of desertification. ICSE 4. What are different technologies that can be developed for the recharge of the Ground Water?
Describe any two of such technologies. Discuss any two methods of rainwater harvesting. ICSE � 6. Discuss the success of water harvesting in ancient India. Write a few success stories on it. Describe the importance of coral reefs in the marine ecosystem. ICSE � 9. Describe the importance of Coastal Ecosystem. Write the role of coral reefs in biodiversity preservation and ecotourism.
What is Coral Bleaching? What are the aims of conserving marine and coastal ecosystems? Write steps of conservation of marine ecosystem. What are major stresses on oceanic resources? Describe the efforts of the Government of India for the conservation and management of marine and coastal ecosystem. How is the Marine Ecosystem being degraded day by day?
What should be done for its conservation? The extent of soil degradation on earth through deforestation is � a m ha b m ha c m ha d m ha 3. The species richness at any place is called as � a fauna b flora c biodiversity d forest 4.
The percentage of soil degradation caused by dumping of wastes is � a 12 b 10 c 8 d 11 5. The Integrated Watershed Development also incorporates � a development of community b education of children at school c improvement of crops d pest control B.
Fill in the blanks 1. Low efficiency irrigation schemes often cause�����. Floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are natural causes of spoilage of���. Bunds and terraces provide mechanical���������. Tankas and Johads, 5. Multiple Choice Type Questions 1. Land cover, 2. Wastage of Water 3. Land, 4. Protection, 5. You will need funnels, water, and three different soil samples like sand, gravel, dirt or so.
Make layers of soil in different ways in each of the funnels and make records of sequence of different layers in each funnel. Now, pour the clean water through funnels one by one and note the time taken in percolation for all the three cases. Collect a sample of dirty water from a nearby drain and pour one by one through these funnels. Compare the qualities of the dirty water after percolation through different funnels.
Now write the project report in proper format incorporating following headlines �Project Title, Objective, Materials, Methodology, Interpretation of data and Analysis, Conclusion, Acknowledgements and References. Try to find out � 1.
How many people use this system? What are the patterns of the use of water? What is the general quality of water being harvested?
What are the factors that are adversely affecting the quality of water harvested? What improvements in your opinion, can be made to improve that traditional method for maximum benefits? Write a complete report and show it to your teacher. It may be terrestrial or aquatic. The terrestrial ecosystems are the ecosystems on land. These may be forests, grasslands and semi- arid ecosystems of various types. As for aquatic ecosystems, they are � fresh water and marine.
We already know about these ecosystems. Forests, grasslands and semi- arid ecosystems are formations that cover the land surface and protect it. Various types of forests are spread across the globe and so are grasslands. The Prairies of Canada and U. The semi- arid ecosystems are the ecosystems that are partly dry and partly wet.
Most of these ecosystems comprise very less and peculiar types of vegetation. Scanty flora and fauna are principal characteristics of these ecosystems. The increasing economic activities of human beings are putting severe stresses on these ecosystems. Most parts of these ecosystems are severely stressed due to overexploitation and mismanagement. In this lesson, we are going to study about the stresses on forests, grasslands and semi- arid ecosystems, and their conservation and management.
Stress on Forests Forests perform various productive and protective functions. Checking the erosion of soil and spread of deserts are two of their major protective functions. Forests absorb Carbon Dioxide. Thus they acts as carbon dioxide sinks. The growth of human population created fresh requirements of land for housing, agricultural expansion, farming practices, development of pastures, mining, human settlements, and industrial developments.
All the requirements were fulfilled by clearing of vast tracts of forests across the globe. Over harvesting of industrial wood, fuel wood, other forest products, overgrazing and many natural factors like insect pests, diseases, forest fires and disasters created additional stress on forests. An uncontrolled fire often occurring in wild land areas, but which can also consume houses or agricultural resources is called as forest fire.
Wildfires tend to be most common and severe during years of drought and occur on days of strong winds. With extensive urbanization of forest lands, these fires often involve destruction of suburban homes located in the wild land urban interface, a zone of transition between developed areas and undeveloped wild land.
In addition to the wildfires, several million acres of forest land are intentionally burnt each year under controlled conditions to accomplish some silvicultural or other land-use objective or for hazard reduction. These factors are mentioned below- A. Natural causes- fires caused by lightning, and fires caused by volcanic eruption, B. Accidental causes- fires caused by sparks from wheels of trains or certain locomotives, and other causes C. Negligence � These causes include � i Fires caused by cigarette stubs or matches- along roadways, - in rural areas, - in wooded areas, and along railway lines.
Common causes of forest fire include lightning, human carelessness, slash-and-burn farming, arson, volcano eruption, pyroclastic cloud from active volcano, and underground coal fire.
There are two types of forest fire i Surface Fire and ii Crown Fire Surface Fire - A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the ground as the surface litter senescent leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc on the forest floor and is engulfed by the spreading flames. Crown Fire - The other type of forest fire is a crown fire in which the crown of trees and shrubs burn, often sustained by a surface fire.
A crown fire is particularly very dangerous in a coniferous forest because resinous material given off burning logs burn furiously. On hill slopes, if the fire starts downhill, it spreads up fast as heated air adjacent to a slope tends to flow up the slope spreading flames along with it. If the fire starts uphill, there is less likelihood of it spreading downwards. In a nutshell, forest fires cause following adverse impacts- v Loss of valuable timber resources and depletion of carbon sinks v Degradation of water catchment areas resulting in loss of water v Loss of biodiversity and extinction of plants and animals v Loss of wild life habitat and depletion of wild life v Loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover and production v Global warming resulting in rising temperature v Loss of carbon sink resource and increase in percentage of CO2 in the atmosphere v Change in micro climate of the area making it unhealthy living conditions v Soil erosion affecting productivity of soils and production v Ozone layer depletion v Health problems leading to diseases v Indirect effects on agricultural production: Loss of livelihood for the tribals as approximately 65 million people are classified as tribals who directly depend upon collection of non-timber forest products from the forest areas for their livelihood.
After a countrywide study in , the Forest Survey of India gathered data on fire fires. These data attribute about 50 percent of the forest area as fire-prone. Out of 63 million ha of forests in India 3. At this level the annual losses from forest fires in the country has been estimated at Rs. The burning of vegetation gives off not only carbon dioxide but also a host of other, noxious gases Green house gases such as carbon monoxide, methane, hydrocarbons, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide, that lead to global warming and ozone layer depletion.
Consequently, thousands of people suffered from serious respiratory problems due to these toxic gases. Burning forests and grasslands also add to already serious threat of global warming. Recent measurement suggest that biomass burning may be a significant global source of methyl bromide, which is an ozone depleting chemical. Identification and mapping of all fire-prone area. Compilation and analysis of data-base on the damage due to forest fire.
Items of forest protection to be treated as a Plan Item in order to raise their profile and thereby increase their Budget Allocation. All preventive measures are to be taken before the beginning of the fire season like summer season. Recruitment of a Nodal Officer to coordinate with various agencies including the Government of India on issues of forest-fire. Communication network to be set up for quick flow of information and movement of materials and man-power to the fire site.
JFM Committees and Forest Protection Committees are to be actively involved in the prevention and control of forest fires. Other people living in and around forest areas and getting benefits from the forest should also be involved actively. Regular training of Government Staff and communities as Fire �Fighters should be organized by the government. Public awareness should be created against ill effects of forest fires- a Fire -Week should be celebrated to create mass awareness.
Legal Provisions for fire prevention and control should be implemented forcefully. Precautions: The followings are the important precautions against fire: 1. To keep the source of fire or source of ignition separated from combustible and inflammable material. To keep the source of fire under watch and control. Not to allow combustible or inflammable material to pile up unnecessarily and to stock the same as per procedure recommended for safe storage of such combustible or inflammable material.
To adopt safe practices in areas near forests viz. To incorporate fire reducing and fire fighting techniques and equipment while planning a building or coal mining operation.
In case of forest fires, the volunteer teams are essential not only for fire fighting but also to keep watch on the start of forest and sound an alert. To arrange fire fighting drills frequently.
This Master Plan is a blend of modern and Traditional methods and Technologies for which the Government has made provisions for the allocation of adequate funds. In the Constitution of India, the subject of forests is on the Concurrent List. It means that the Central Government and State Governments are both competent to legislate on the issue of forest � fires etc. Issues relating to policy, planning, and finance are primarily the responsibly of the Government of India.
On the other hand the field administration of forests is the responsibility of the different State Governments. In India, forests are protected and managed through well prepared Forest- Working Plans, and Prevention and Control of Forest- fires has always been at the place of priority. Some of the important prescriptions included in the working plans are � employing traditional practices of fire control like: - Creation and maintenance of fire-lines, fire-tracks, controlled burning, engaging fire-watchers during fire seasons etc.
The Government of India implemented a UNDP Project during to address the problem of resource damage from uncontrolled forest-fires. A pilot project was launched in Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra where severe fires had damaged about 50 percent of the forest area. The Haldwani and Chandrapur forest-fire incidents were reduced up to 90 percent through the pilot project.
An air operation wing was also formed in through which latest fire-fighting technologies including helicopters and fixed wing aircrafts are being applied in needing areas. Most of the forests of the world have been destroyed over the period of last thirty years.
These form a dense cover on soil and protect it from being washed away by water during rains or blown away by wind. More than 40, ha of land are during rains affected annually by severe wind and water erosions. The maximum loss of the top soil in India is caused due to the destruction of grass cover on earth.
But, human pressure on grasslands has put the earth surface under critical conditions. So far, man has altered virgin landscapes by destroying vast areas of grasslands and has converted these areas into croplands.
Much of the grassland ecosystems have been destroyed through building of large dams, mining and other industrial activities, water logging, salination, urban encroachments and construction of settlements etc. In addition, the introduction of exotic grass species has caused the destruction of many grassland ecosystems. A Grassland Ecosystem. Stress on Semi- arid Ecosystems An ecosystem which receives low annual rainfall mm is called as Semi-arid ecosystem.
The climate of semi-arid ecosystem remains intermediate between the desert climate and humid climate. These ecosystems are relatively more vulnerable to human activities due to excessive pressure of conversion into crop fields and reclamation for different purposes.
The extraction of ground water for irrigation and domestic purposes is causing water scarcity in many of these areas. Overgrazing by sheep and goats has put severe stress on the health of soils of these ecosystems. Overgrazing can be defined as grazing plants before they have recovered from a previous grazing.
When a plant is grazed severely, it uses energy stored in its roots to support regrowth. As this energy is used, the roots die back. The dying of roots depends on the severity of grazing. This root dieback is not a bad thing. After enough leaves have regrown, the roots will regrow as well.
A- Overgrazing. B- Impacts of overgrazing. Following are some of very dangerous impacts of overgrazing - 1. Soils have less organic matter and become less fertile due to overgrazing. Porosity of soils decreases due to overgrazing. The infiltration rate and moisture-holding capacity drop due to overgrazing. Desirable plants become stressed, while weedier species thrive in these harsher conditions. Weeds do not make the land unhealthy.
They appear because the land is unhealthy. Overgrazing is often the cause of this adverse and undesirable condition. Even one cow in a big pasture will overgraze plants if she is kept there long enough. Animals graze selectively. Given a chance, they will overgraze.
The newest growth is the most palatable, nutritious forage in the pasture. Overgrazing happens when animals are kept in a paddock too long or brought back too soon. As overgrazing destroys the vegetation completely the entire area becomes prone to desertification and heavy soil erosion that may cause siltation of any river leading to severe floods that may claim large number of lives and great property.
To stop overgrazing, producers must move livestock out of a pasture before regrowth of plants begins again. During the periods of fast growth, overgrazing will occur if livestock are kept in a paddock for more than three or four days. Overgrazing can be stopped with paddocks. When growth of plants is fast, recovery periods of four to six weeks may be adequate.
The first step to achieving environmental sustainability is to stop overgrazing. Overgrazing by cattle indicates towards irresponsible attitudes of cattle owners. Hence, awareness or some short of legislation to stop overgrazing is urgent for protecting the land against the consequences of this incidence.
These ecosystems harbour restricted vegetation during the favourable growth seasons. Crop plants grown in these ecosystems need repeated irrigation due to which the deposits of salt takes place in the soil and make it unfit for further use. Technological operations, building of roads, tourism, recreation etc. The need and importance of conservation and management of forests is being felt the world over.
Different countries are trying to conserve and manage their forests. Governments have framed their Forest Policies and have enacted laws to protect forests whereas local communities in different parts of the world are making their own efforts for the protection and management of their forests by making plans of their own. Forests control and affect the global environment also. Hence, nations of the world have planned to protect global forests through joint efforts.
Global scenario of Conservation and Management of Forests Forests retain much of the rain water either through the stems and leaves or through roots of trees. This is why forests are called as sponges. They control and maintain global as well as local environmental processes.
Following the Stockholm Conference , many countries in the world banned cutting of trees in view of conservation and management of their forests and the devastating natural calamities like landslide and flooding.
According to this management scheme, countries of the world should utilize their forest resources keeping in minds the needs of future generations. By , nine international initiatives were launched incorporating the development of implementation of schemes in 85 percent forests on the global level. National Scenario of Conservation and Management of Forests Forests of India have been under continuous pressure due to a number of factors.
The Government of India has been conducting a number of conservation programmes, and it is due to these efforts that the Forest Cover in India has increased by six percent between and For achieving up to this target the government has formulated a number of plans and projects for which surveys of forest areas and forest cover are being done from time to time.
Any effort to conserve and manage forests at national level, involves Survey and Assessment of Total Forest Area and the Forest Cover, at the initial stage. What is a forest area? A Forest Area is the area of land recorded as forest in revenue records or proclaimed to be forest under a forest law or Act. It is the total forest area recorded by the technology of Remote Sensing through a satellite. Thus the record of forest cover is based on the capability of Remote Sensing Satellite Sensor.
It is completely independent of the legality of land use or land ownership. It constitutes A National Afforestation and Eco-development Board was constituted in August , in order to expand forest cover.
Table 2. Now, if someone wants to divert a forest land for non forest purposes, he is bound to take permission from the Central Government under the Forest conservation Act, Under this programme, about village communities in 21 states, are managing more than11 million ha of the degraded forests.
This scheme has been extended to all the states and Union Territories during the tenth Five Year Plan. Conservation and Management of Forests by Local Communities Human Communities living near forests or in forest- villages tend to care forest- resources as most parts of their livelihood depend on these resources.
It was after independence that the Government of India started managing its forests through its own management systems. Thus, forests came directly under the ownership of States and it became a little difficult for communities to use the forest-resources. The growing population of human beings and of the livestock- accompanied with the demands from industries, caused pressures on forests from many sides.
The practice of management of forest resources jointly by the Forest Department and the local communities is called as Joint Forest Management. It is officially abbreviated as JFM. The system of Joint Forest Management entitles local communities in sharing of forest products in lieu of their works pertaining to the protection and management of forest resources. The communities living near forests remain dependent on them for their livelihood.
On the other hand, now they are being increasingly aware of the roles of forests in the environment. Hence, they tend to oppose every stress on their forests caused by contractors and other people including the government officials. Inspired by the J. More than , ha of forests in Vietnam have been given in the charge of indigenous people fighting for their rights on forests. In Philippines too, a system of Integrated Protected Areas have been developed which protects the biodiversity involving local communities in the management of forests.
In Jharkhand India too, the local tribal people including tribal women in different areas, have started taking charge of the conservation and management of local forests.
Principal Measures to Conserve Forests Fig. Felling of trees should be matched by plantation of trees. The extraction of timber should be done judiciously and it should not interfere with the local watersheds. Felling of trees should be minimized and it should be matched by plantation of trees. The use of fire wood should be discouraged and alternate sources of energy should be promoted.
Modern techniques of promotion, protection and regeneration of forests like promotion of silvi-culture, disease and pest management, weed control, breeding of endangered tree species and application of techniques of tissue culture should be promoted. Forest conservation and management rules should be enforced properly. All the interference in forests should be banned completely.
Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be banned. Legal Provisions for Conservation and Management of Forests in India The Indian forests are protected through a definite Forest Policy since , which has been revised twice, in and in , respectively. It is aimed at protection, conservation and development of forests. Besides the Indian Forest Policy, our forests are also protected by a number of legal provisions like Indian Forest Act,; Forest conservation Act,;Forest conservation Rules, etc.
The central government has established State Animal Welfare Boards in 24 states and union territories. These practices are - control on overgrazing, Afforestation, watershed development, adoption of appropriate cropping pattern and adoption of proper land management practices. A Semi�arid Ecosystem. Semi- arid ecosystems are usually governed by the extent of availability of water. Most of these are dependent on rain�water which often remains irregular and unreliable. The rain fall pattern is badly disturbed due to cutting of trees and clearing of vegetation cover.
Under these conditions most of the water needed for irrigation is extracted out from the ground. The underground water table is being depleted due to increasing number of bore- wells. Construction of check - dams and, development and management of watersheds. Social forestry is the practice of growing trees and shrubs in village common lands and waste lands in view of production of fuel wood and fodder. The agro forestry is the practice of growing commercially useful trees with minor canopy on field boundaries.
The Forest Management Councils in India were formed in , after great and repeated agitations by the people living in and around forests, against the new rules and regulations on forest �use, were imposed on the people. As most of our forests are located on hills and mountains, people living in these areas have sufficient knowledge about the conservation and management of forests. The British people, who agreed to create Van Panchayat, after continued agitations by the people living in hill forests, were aware of the capacity of people for the management of forests.
But, the repeated amendments in this Act have reduced the powers of VPs, and have brought them under the control of the Act. This is not being liked by many Indian environmentalists. How ever VPs are functioning very well in some states of India under the district administrations. Uttaranchal is one such state. An international treaty which was adopted in in order to set concrete targets for developed countries to reduce the emissions that contribute to global warming, also known as Climate Change.
It went into force in February Mention any two direct causes that threaten our forests. Who had sponsored the Stockholm Conference in ? How has the Stockholm Conference valued the global forests? When was the National Forest Commission constituted? When was the Indian Forest Policy formulated for the first time? Name any one factor responsible for the degradation of grasslands?
What do you know about the semi �arid ecosystem? ICSE 2. Define conservation and management. Give a brief account of the steps taken up by the Central Government for the Conservation and Management of forests in India. How are our forests conserved and managed by the local people? What are the legal provisions for the protection of forests in India? Mention two measures for the control of overgrazing. ICSE 8. Mention two natural causes of Forest Fires.
ICSE 9. What are carbon dioxide sinks? Explain how. Mention any two protective functions of forests. Mention any two tribal practices aimed at conservation of Forest Resources. What do you know about the conservation and management of forests in India? Suggest any three appropriate measures. How do human beings threaten our grasslands and semi�arid ecosystems?
Suggest conservation measures two each for these ecosystems. How can Afforestation practices like the social forestry and agro forestry, reduce different types of stresses on our forests? The ecosystem relatively more vulnerable to human activities is � a forest ecosystem b grassland ecosystem c arid ecosystem d semi �arid ecosystem 3.
The Stockholm Conference was held in the year � a b c d 4. The United Nations Forum on Forests was formed in the year � a b c d 5. The Indian Forest Act was enacted in the year � a b c d B. An ecosystem is an interacting unit of the biotic community and the ��environment. Over grazing by cattle like sheep and goat cause stress on��. The depletion of grasslands causes degradation of��. The United Nations Forum on forests was formed in��. The communities living near forests remain dependent on them for their��.
The semi �arid ecosystems are purely dry ecosystems. Overgrazing is an important reason of degradation of grassland ecosystems. Some countries are imposing restrictions on the export of wood. Water logging and salination of soil are necessary for the development of grassland ecosystems.
United Nations, 4. Fill in the Blanks 1. Find out how many different types of grass species are growing in the area. Count the number of plants of each species and write these numbers in your note book.
Repeat the same practice at three different places in the same grassland and note down the numbers of plants in the same manner. Now, you can easily calculate the density and the frequency of different species of grass in the field. Write the experiment properly in your Record Book. Make appropriate plans and write them down in your note book. Include all possible measures and decide how to implement your plans including all possible requirements and their arrangements.
Receive guidelines from your teacher after the approval of the Principal of your school. Write a project �report. This project should be implemented as a work of the eco � club of your school.
It is a loose combination of physical organic and inorganic and biotic materials. The development of soil called as Paedogenesis takes thousands of years. So, it can be called as a non- renewable resource. In spite of being a non- renewable natural resource, soil is under heavy stress due to bad practices of agriculture; overuse of inputs like water, fertilizers and pesticides; deforestation; overgrazing; over- development and pollutions.
In this chapter, we are going to study about the conservation and management of soil. Degraded land. Making the best use of soil, together with protecting it from all types of factors that may cause its degradation is called as soil conservation. Soil is a vital life support system.
No life is possible without soil as plants, our food- providers, can not grow without it. It provides shelter to numerous types of micro organisms and animals. The conservation of soil is needed urgently because degradation of soil across the world has become a matter of particular concern today.
According to a report of the United Nations Environmental Programme, it is estimated that about 13 percent of land in Asia and Pacific has been degraded due to clearance of forests and introduction of invasive species. The agricultural mismanagement is causing chemical soil degradation which is seen in the form of acidification and salinization of soil.
Out of about m ha dry land in Asia, more than one half is affected by desertification. All these cases of land degradation are related directly or indirectly to the land use practices like agricultural expansion and intensive agriculture.
The Conservation and Management of Soil involves a number of practices. Let us discuss these practices of conservation and management of soil one by one. Proper Tillage and Land use Management Tillage in traditional terms is the preparation of soil for growing crops.
It is accomplished by using a plough, tilling machine, tractor etc. Modern devices for Land-Tilling. Garden-Land cultivator. Aeration provides free circulation of oxygen and water, results in the increased biological activities in the soil and allows the Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria to do their duties. Proper tillage practices help the conservation of soil in many ways.
The uphill and downhill direction of furrows promotes soil erosion. But, by ploughing across the slope, water is directed to enter into the soil. This type of ploughing is known as contour ploughing. The utilization of a particular type of land for a suitable purpose is called as land use management. Lands are utilized for growing crops, developing pastures, growing forests, developing and protecting wildlife, constructing houses etc.
But all types of land should not be used for all types of purposes. For example, a fertile and well drained land should be used for agriculture only and forest lands should not be used for agriculture. Root-nodules on roots of a leguminous plant. Growing different crops in a set pattern of alternation is called as Alternate Cropping.
Most often it is also called as the Crop Rotation, in which crops are grown in a particular field in a cyclic fashion. In winter, cover crops are sown to protect the soil. Often leguminous like Pea, Soybean, Pigeon Pea etc. The roots of leguminous crops allow a number of nitrogen fixing bacteria to live in their nodules and to fix nitrogen for them. This process is called as Biological Frank Icse Mathematics Class 10 Solutions 2020 Video Nitrogen Fixation. There is an un-usual leguminous plant called Sesbania rostrata. This plant has nodules on its stems in addition to nodules on roots.
Farmers use it as Biofertilizer crop. In an Alternate Cropping pattern, leguminous crops follow non-leguminous crops. The plants of leguminous crops have tap root systems that draw water and minerals from the lower layer of soil. On the other hand, the non- leguminous crops have fibrous root systems that draw water and minerals from the superficial layer of soil. Thus the fertility of soil is retained and promoted through alternate cropping pattern or through the pattern of the crop rotation.
Judicious use of Inputs Water, fertilizers, and pesticides are principal inputs of agriculture. These inputs, if not in adequate quantity, create such conditions which are harmful to the whole soil system. Flooding of fields with water, during irrigation causes an increase in the salt content of the soil and makes it saline. A saline soil is always unfit for the growth of plants.
Fertilizers too, damage soil composition if applied in excess quantities. The excessive application of these chemicals increases salt content of the soil. The synthetic pesticides applied on crop plants cause serious soil pollution and kill various types of soil organisms inhabiting it.
Many of the synthetic pesticides are non- biodegradable and hence persist in the soil; for longer periods. Use of Manure, Bio-fertilizers, and Bio-pesticides Manure is a mixture of organic materials prepared under natural conditions through the decomposition of bio- wastes and agricultural residues.
It is often done in a deep pit called as compost. Hence, the manure so produced is also called as compost. It is very useful for crops as well as for soils. It improves soil fertility by adding important nutrients to it, improves soil composition and upgrades its ability of water retention. It is through the preparation of manure that the problem of disposal of agricultural waste and waste from animal husbandry can be solved in proper ways.
Manure may be of different types- like composts, worm composts and green manures compost is the manure prepared from crop residues and animal wastes in scientifically dug compost pits either through aerobic or anaerobic ways.
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